FIGURE 1.

ATP generation and ROS production in cardiac mitochondrion. The major resource of cardiac mitochondria comes from β-oxidation. Generation of NADH and FADH₂ from β-oxidation and TCA cycle are used by respiratory chain complexes. Respiratory chain complexes are located in IMM. Electrons generated from complex I, II pass through the respiratory chain and alter the concentration gradient of H⁺. Complex V produces ATP driven by H⁺ flow. During the generation of ATP, complex I and III produce O₂ ⁻. Excessive ROS leads to mitochondrial dysfunction. Abbreviations: IMM, inner mitochondrial membrane, OMM, outer mitochondrial membrane, IMS, mitochondrial intermembrane space, ROS, reactive oxygen species, NADH, reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, FADH2, reduced flavin adenine dinucleotide, CoQ, coenzyme Q, Cyto. C, cytochrome C, ADP, adenosine diphosphate, ATP, adenosine-triphosphate triphosphate, TCA, tricarboxylic acid cycle, CoA, coenzyme A, α-KG, α-ketoglutarate.