Table 3.
Clinical Studies | Treatment | Parameters Evaluated | Effect | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
20 patients with CKD and related complications | Sodium Propionate | Biochemical analyse on sera for hs-CRP, IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, IL-17a, TNF-α, INFγ, TGF-β, IL-10, MDA, and endotoxins/lipopolysaccharides | Sodium Propionate reduced inflammatory markers and improved anti-inflammatory parameters | Marzocco et al., 2018 [147] |
43 patients with CKD | LPD | Analysis of bacterial populations and IS and pCS levels | LPD modulates gut dysbiosis and positively impacts the outcome of patients with CKD | Wu et al., 2020 [158] |
Patients in HD with CKD | RS2 | Evaluation of biochemical and clinical parameters, analysis of serum and plasma samples, genomic sequencing analysis | Mitigate inflammation and oxidative stress in hemodialysis patients by positively altering SCFA-producing bacteria | Kemp et al., 2021 [156] |
214 patients with CKD and CVD | Addition of valerate | Evaluation of anthropometric, biochemical and clinical parameters, measurement of plasma levels of SCFAs | The addition of valerate to a model of hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and other complications significantly improved there conditions of patients | Jadoon et al., 2019 [154] |
60 patients with grade 3B-4 CKD | FD, MD, VLPD | Anthropometri, clinical, and biochemical parameters obtained from stool and serum samples | Increased Lachnospiraceae, Ruminococcaceae, Prevotellaceae, Bifidobacteriaceae, Coprococcus, and Roseburia forming butyrate, increased anti-inflammatory potential, improved intestinal permeability and systolic blood pressure, reduced Enterobacteriaceae pathogens and circulating levels of IS, pCS, and D-Lactate | Di Iorio et al., 2018 [157] |
Abbreviations: hs-CRP, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein; IL, Interleukin; INF-γ, Interferon gamma; MDA, Malondialdehyde; TGF-β, Transforming Growth Factor beta; TNF-α, Tumor Necrosis Factor alpha; IS, Indoxyl Sulfate; pCS, pCresil Sulfate; CVD, Cardiovascular disease; HD, Hemodialysis; CKD, Chronic Kidney Disease; LPD, Low-Protein Diet; SCFA, Short-chain Fatty Acids; FD, Free Diet; MD, Mediterranean Diet; VLPD, Very-Low Protein Diet.