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. 2022 May 11;23(10):5354. doi: 10.3390/ijms23105354

Table 3.

Clinical studies report a related improvement in SCFA levels both in in vitro and animal models.

Clinical Studies Treatment Parameters Evaluated Effect References
20 patients with CKD and related complications Sodium Propionate Biochemical analyse on sera for hs-CRP, IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, IL-17a, TNF-α, INFγ, TGF-β, IL-10, MDA, and endotoxins/lipopolysaccharides Sodium Propionate reduced inflammatory markers and improved anti-inflammatory parameters Marzocco et al., 2018 [147]
43 patients with CKD LPD Analysis of bacterial populations and IS and pCS levels LPD modulates gut dysbiosis and positively impacts the outcome of patients with CKD Wu et al., 2020
[158]
Patients in HD with CKD RS2 Evaluation of biochemical and clinical parameters, analysis of serum and plasma samples, genomic sequencing analysis Mitigate inflammation and oxidative stress in hemodialysis patients by positively altering SCFA-producing bacteria Kemp et al., 2021
[156]
214 patients with CKD and CVD Addition of valerate Evaluation of anthropometric, biochemical and clinical parameters, measurement of plasma levels of SCFAs The addition of valerate to a model of hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and other complications significantly improved there conditions of patients Jadoon et al., 2019 [154]
60 patients with grade 3B-4 CKD FD, MD, VLPD Anthropometri, clinical, and biochemical parameters obtained from stool and serum samples Increased Lachnospiraceae, Ruminococcaceae, Prevotellaceae, Bifidobacteriaceae, Coprococcus, and Roseburia forming butyrate, increased anti-inflammatory potential, improved intestinal permeability and systolic blood pressure, reduced Enterobacteriaceae pathogens and circulating levels of IS, pCS, and D-Lactate Di Iorio et al., 2018 [157]

Abbreviations: hs-CRP, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein; IL, Interleukin; INF-γ, Interferon gamma; MDA, Malondialdehyde; TGF, Transforming Growth Factor beta; TNF-α, Tumor Necrosis Factor alpha; IS, Indoxyl Sulfate; pCS, pCresil Sulfate; CVD, Cardiovascular disease; HD, Hemodialysis; CKD, Chronic Kidney Disease; LPD, Low-Protein Diet; SCFA, Short-chain Fatty Acids; FD, Free Diet; MD, Mediterranean Diet; VLPD, Very-Low Protein Diet.