Table 2.

Summary of in vivo animal studies on eye and AST.

Study type	Animals	AST dose	Referred ocular disease	Biological effects	Related genes	References
In vivo	C57BL/6J mice	1/0.1/0.01 ng/ml by eye drop	Phototoxic keratitis	Increase corneal thickness, antiapoptosis, reduce ROS and NF-κB	NF-κB	[44]
In vivo	C57BL/6J mice	6mg	Phototoxic keratitis	Improve corneal epithelial thickness	NF-κB , caspase-3, CD45, COX-2, TNF-α,IκB	[13]
				Antiapoptosis
				Inhibit activity of NF-κB
				Decrease proinflammatory factors and ROS
In vivo	Chicken embryo model	50/80/100 mg/ml	Cataract	Inhibit HC-induced cataract	—	[54]
				Reduced GSH levels
In vivo	Sprague Dawley rat	16/80 mg/kg	Cataract	Delay progress of cataract	AGEs, SOD, GSH, CAT, MDA	[51]
				Protect epithelium of lens
				Decrease antioxidant levels
In vivo	Db/db rats	25/5 mg/kg by oral gavage	Type 2 diabetes mellitus	Decrease levels of oxidative stress marker	MDA, 8-OHdG, SOD	[16]
				Inhibit apoptosis
In vivo	Psammomys obesus	10 mg/kg	Type 2 diabetes mellitus	Increase HO-1 expression	HO-1, glial markers (GFAP, CRALBP, and GS)	[55]
				Attenuates glial dysfunction
In vivo	Wistar rats	0.6/3 mg/kg	Type 1 diabetes mellitus	Decrease oxidative stress and inflammatory mediators and inhibit activity of NF-κB	8-OHdG, NO, acrolein, ICAM-1, MCP-1	[56]
				Increase antioxidant enzyme
In vivo	ddY mice	100 mg/kg	Retina ischemia (AMD, DR, glaucoma	Protect retinal functional and histological damage	—	[53]
				Decrease RGCs death
In vivo	C57BL/6J mice	10/100 ng/μL	Pathological retinal angiogenesis	Antiproliferation and antiapoptosis of endothelial cells	—	[57]
In vivo	C57BL/6J mice	1/10/100 mg/kg	AMD	Suppress CNV and macrophage infiltration	ICAM-1, MCP-1, IL-6, VEGF, VEGFR-1, VEGFR-2, IκB	[15]
				Decrease expression of inflammatory and angiogenic molecules
				Inhibit activity of NF-κB
In vivo	ddY mice	100 mg/kg	AMD/RP	Increase GCL and INL	8-OHdG, 4-HNE	[58]
				Inhibit oxidative DNA damage and lipid peroxidation damage
				Antiapoptosis
In vivo	ddY mice	100 mg/kg	AMD/RP	Ameliorate retinal dysfunction and histological damage	8-OHdG, ROS	[48]
				Antiapoptosis
In vivo	Glast ± mice and C57BL/6J mice	10/30/60 mg/kg	Normal intraocular glaucoma (NTG)	Suppress RGCs loss	4-HNE, pIκB, IκB	[59]
In vivo	C57BL/6J mice	50 mg/kg	Glaucoma	Protect retinal tissues and RGCs from oxidative stress	Bax, Bcl-2, Nrf2. HO-1, ROS	[11]
				Inhibit apoptosis of RGCs
				Active nrf2/HO-1 pathway
In vivo	Sprague Dawley rat	25/75 mg/kg	Retinal toxicity	Prevent retinal toxicity by CIS	GSH, MDA	[60]