Table 1.
Cellulose- organic composite scaffolds in bone tissue engineering.
| Composite | Fabrication method | Pore size (μm) | Porosity (%) | Mechanical properties | Type of study | Key biological results | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| BC-PHB | Salt leaching technique | 5–50 | ___ | Tensile Strength (MPa): 15 ± 1.0 Young Modulus (MPa): 1400 ± 101 |
In vitro, In vivo (critical size calvaria defect in mice) | Increased proliferation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes, in vivo osteoblast differentiation, new bone formation, enhanced ALP activity and OSX expression | [40] |
| CA-PULL | Electrospinning | 20–100 | (41.98 ± 10.56)- (67.64 ± 4.89) | Young's modulus (MPa): (0.43 ± 0.01) to (1.68 ± 0.09) Elastic modulus (MPa): (2.97 ± 0.09) to (5.50 ± 0.79) |
In vitro | Enhanced adhesion, proliferation and differentiation of human osteogenic sarcoma cell line, promoted ALP activity | [42] |
| CA-COL | Oil-in water solvent-evaporation technique | 185.4 ± 8.6 | 33.9 ± 5.2 | Compressive modulus (MPa): 266-(75 ± 33)-22 (Dry scaffold), 130-(53 ± 13)-97 (Wet scaffold) Compressive strength (MPa): 12-(15 ± 2)-23 (Dry scaffold), 7-(15 ± 1)-24 (Wet scaffold) |
In vitro | Increased adhesion and proliferation of human osteoblast cells | [47] |
| PLA-RC | Electrospinning and Freeze-drying | Minor pores: smaller than 20. Major pores: 50 to 150 |
Around 96 | Young's modulus (kPa): 16.5 to 54.9 | In vitro | Increased biomineralization and bone-like apatite formation | [51] |
| Na-CMC-CS- CQ | Freeze-drying | 148–239 | ___ | Compression Moduli (kPa): 654.4 (dry condition), 87.65 (wet condition) |
In vitro | Enhanced adhesion, proliferation, and mineralization of osteoblasts, increased osteogenic activity and ALP activity | [55] |
| HEC-PVA | Electrospinning | (9.55 ± 0.17)- (5.98 ± 0.5) | ___ | Tensile Strength (MPa): 2.63 to 10.54 Elastic modulus (MPa): 188 to 349.25 |
In vitro | Increased attachment and proliferation of human osteosarcoma cells | [59] |
| HEC-PVA-CNC | Freeze-drying | 33.4-∼54.1 | 77 | ___ | In vitro | Increased adhesion and proliferation of human fetal osteoblast cells | [60] |
| TEMPO-oxidized CNF- GEL |
Freeze-drying | 8–150 | 71.4 ± 1.4 | ___ | In vitro | Increased attachment, spreading and osteogenic differentiation of hBMSCs, enhanced RUNX2 and SPP1 expression | [64] |
| CNC-PLLA | Selective laser sintering | 450–600 | ___ | Tensile strength (MPa): 7.93 ± 0.31 Modulus (GPa): 2.33 ± 0.07 |
In vitro | Enhanced adhesion, proliferation and differentiation of MG-63 cells, increased ALP activity | [67] |
| Cellulose-CNCs-BMP-2 | Electrospinning | 272.4 ± 31.64 nm | 77 | ___ | In vitro, In vivo (cranial bone in rabbit) | Increased osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs, enhanced ALP activity and calcium content, induced in vivo collagen assembly direction, cortical bone regeneration | [69] |
| BNC -SA-CS-GEL | Freeze-drying and Layer-by-layer assembly | 30–300 | 77.4 | compressive strengths (MPa): 0.27 | In vitro | Increased attachment, proliferation and differentiation of MC3T3 -E1 cells, enhanced ALP activity | [73] |
| CNW-PU | Solvent casting/particulate leaching | 20–150 | 82 | Tensile strength (kPa): 112 | In vitro | Promoted proliferation, adhesion, and osteogenic differentiation of hMSCs, increased ALP activity and calcium content | [74] |
| CNWs-PU-PHEMA | Solvent casting/particulate leaching | 20–150 | 85 | Tensile elasticity moduli (kPa): 80.5 Tensile strength (kPa): 89.8 |
In vitro | Enhanced osteogenic differentiation of hMSCs and bone mineralization | [76] |
| MCC-PCL | 3D Printing | 450–500 | 57 ± 2 | Compressive modulus (MPa): 7 | In vitro | Increased proliferation of sheep bone marrow cells | [77] |