Table 1.
Studies reporting the occurrence of saprolegniosis in different life stages of amphibians. Whenever possible, the pathogen is indicated accordingly as identified in the original publication. (s)—identification based on phylogenetic analyses; w—reported in the wild; c—reported in captivity; l—laboratory assays (infection during laboratory assays, or artificially exposed for susceptibility assay or for assessing exposure effects to the pathogen); n.d.—not defined. Note: The scientific name of the host species is indicated as it appears in the original publication. IUCN Red List Category: Least Concern (LC); Near Threatened (NT); Vulnerable (VU); Endangered (EN); Critically Endangered (CR).
| Host Species | IUCN Red List Category (Last Assessment) | Population Trend | Life Stage | Pathogen | Country | Reference | GenBank Accession Number |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anura | |||||||
| Anaxyrus canorus | EN, 2004 | Decreasing | Eggs (w) | Saprolegnia diclina | USA | [38] | |
| Atelopus mittermeieri | EN, 2017 | Decreasing | Adult (w) | Saprolegnia sp. | Colombia | [39] | |
| Bombina bombina | LC, 2009 | Decreasing | Eggs (l) |
Saprolegnia ferax Saprolegnia parasitica Aphanomyces stellatus Dictyuchus sterilis Leptomitus lacteus (*) |
Poland | [40] | |
| Bufo americanus 1 | LC, 2015 | Stable | Eggs (w) (l) |
Saprolegnia sp. Achlya sp. |
USA | [41] | |
| Bufo americanus 1 | LC, 2015 | Stable | Embryo (l) |
Achlya sp. Saprolegnia sp. |
USA | [42] | |
| Bufo boreas 2 | LC, 2015 | Decreasing | Eggs (w) | Saprolegnia ferax | USA | [43] | |
| Bufo boreas 2 | LC, 2015 | Decreasing | Eggs (l) | Saprolegnia ferax | USA | [13] | |
| Bufo boreas 2 | LC, 2015 | Decreasing | Eggs (w) (l) | Saprolegnia ferax | USA | [44] | |
| Bufo boreas 2 | LC, 2015 | Decreasing | Embryos (w) (l) | Saprolegnia ferax | USA | [14] | |
| Bufo boreas 2 | LC, 2015 | Decreasing | Metamorphs (l) | Saprolegnia sp. | USA | [45] | |
| Bufo boreas 2 | LC, 2015 | Decreasing | Egg (w) |
Saprolegnia anisospora (s) S. diclina (s) Saprolegnia. sp. 1 (s) Saprolegnia sp. 2 (s) |
USA | [31] |
EU124746 to EU124748 EU124759 to EU124753 EU124761 |
| Bufo boreas 2 (*) | LC, 2015 | Decreasing | Eggs (w) |
Saprolegnia spp. (s) Achlya spp.(s) |
USA | [46] |
JQ974984 JQ974986 to JQ974990, JQ974992 to JQ974999 |
| Bufo bufo 3 | LC, 2009 | Stable | Eggs (w) |
Saprolegnia (Molding) |
Netherlands | [21] | |
| Bufo bufo 3 | LC, 2009 | Stable | Eggs (w) | Saprolegniaceae | Netherlands | [22] | |
| Bufo bufo 3 | LC, 2009 | Stable | Eggs (l) |
Saprolegnia ferax Saprolegnia parasitica Aphanomyces stellatus Dictyuchus sterilis Leptomitus lacteus (*) |
Poland | [40] | |
| Bufo bufo 3 | LC, 2009 | Stable | Eggs (l) | “Saprolegnia diclina-S. parasitica complex” | UK | [47] | |
| Bufo bufo 3 | LC, 2009 | Stable | Eggs (n.d) | Saprolegnia diclina (s) | Spain | [36] |
KF717747 KF717750 |
| Bufo calamita 4 | LC, 2009 | Decreasing | Eggs (w) |
Saprolegnia (Molding) |
Netherlands | [21] | |
| Bufo calamita 4 | LC, 2009 | Decreasing | Eggs (w) | Saprolegniaceae | Netherlands | [22] | |
| Bufo calamita 4 | LC, 2009 | Decreasing | Eggs (w) | Saprolegnia “infestation” (**) | UK | [23] | |
| Bufo calamita 4 | LC, 2009 | Decreasing | Eggs (w) | Saprolegnia diclina | Spain | [48] | |
| Bufo calamita 4 | LC, 2009 | Decreasing | Embryo (w) (l) | Saprolegnia diclina (s) | Spain | [49] | AM228844 |
| Bufo calamita 4 | LC, 2009 | Decreasing | Eggs (n.d) | Saprolegnia diclina (s) | Spain | [36] | KF717752 |
| Bufo gargarizans | LC, 2018 | Stable | Eggs (w) | Saprolegnia ferax (s) | Korea | [50] | MK372991 |
| Bufo marinus 5 | LC, 2008 | Increasing | Tadpoles (w) | Aphanomyces sp. | Australia | [51] | |
| Crinia signifera | LC, 2004 | Stable | Eggs (w) | Water mold infections | Australia | [52] | |
| Elachistocleis bicolor | LC, 2004 | Stable | Embryo (l) | Saprolegnia-like sp. | Argentina | [27] | |
| Engystomops petersi | LC, 2017 | Stable | Embryo (l) | Saprolegnia diclina (s) | Ecuador | [53] | |
| Hyla molleri | LC, 2008 | Decreasing | Eggs (n.d) | Saprolegnia diclina (s) | Spain | [36] | KF717749 |
| Hyla regilla 6 | LC, 2004 | Stable | Eggs (l) | Saprolegnia ferax | USA | [13] | |
| Hyla regilla 6 | LC, 2004 | Stable | Eggs (l)(w) | Saprolegnia ferax | USA | [44] | |
| Hyla regilla 6 | LC, 2004 | Stable | Embryos (l) | Saprolegnia ferax | USA | [54] | |
| Hyla regilla 6 | LC, 2004 | Stable | Embryos (w) | Saprolegnia ferax | USA | [14] | |
| Hyla regilla 6 | LC, 2004 | Stable | Larvae (l) | Saprolegnia sp. | USA | [55] | |
| Hyloscirtus alytolylax | NT, 2004 | Decreasing | Eggs (n.d) | Saprolegnia sp. 2 (s) | Ecuador | [36] | KF718069 |
| Lithobates berlandieri 7 | LC, 2008 | Stable | Tadpoles (w) | Saprolegnia sp. | USA | [56] | |
| Lithobates catesbeiana 8 | LC, 2015 | Increasing | Eggs (w) | Leptolegnia sp. (s) | USA | [57] | GU014271 |
| Pelobates cultripes | VU, 2020 | Decreasing | Eggs (l) (w) | Saprolegnia. diclina (s) | Spain | [49] | AM228845 |
| Pelobates cultripes | VU, 2020 | Decreasing | Eggs (n.d) |
Saprolegnia diclina (s) Saprolegnia sp. 2 (s) |
Spain | [36] |
KF717745/ KF717746 KF717748 KF717753 KF717754 KF717770 KF718050 to KF718054 |
| Pelobates fuscus | LC, 2009 | Decreasing | Eggs (w) |
Saprolegnia (Molding) |
Netherlands | [21] | |
| Pelophylax perezi | LC, 2020 | Decreasing | Eggs (n.d) | Saprolegnia diclina (s) | Spain | [36] | KF717751 |
| Pelophylax perezi | LC, 2020 | Decreasing | Eggs (w) Tadpoles (l) |
Saprolegnia australis (s) | Portugal | Costa et al. (in prep.) | MK046073 |
| Physalaemus albonotatus | LC, 2004 | Stable | Embryo (l) | Saprolegnia sp. | Argentina | [58] | |
| Pleurodema thaul | LC, 2015 | Stable | Eggs (l) (w) |
Saprolegnia ferax Saprolegnia sp. Saprolegnia diclina |
Argentina | [59] | |
| Pleroderma thaul | LC, 2015 | Stable | Eggs (n.d) |
Saprolegnia diclina (s) S. australis (s) S. anisospora (s) |
Argentina | [36] |
KF717781 to KF717785 KF717972 KF718194 |
| Pseudacris crucifer | LC, 2015 | Stable | Eggs (w) (l) | Leptolegnia sp. (s) | USA | [60] | EU071706 |
| Pseudacris crucifer | LC, 2015 | Stable | Eggs (w) Adult (w) |
Saprolegnia sp. (s) Achlya sp. (s) |
USA | [57] |
GU014279 GU014283 |
| P seudacris regilla | LC, 2004 | Stable | Metamorphs (l) | Saprolegnia sp. | USA | [45] | |
| Pseudacris regilla | LC, 2004 | Stable | Egg (w) |
Saprolegnia. sp. 1 (s) S. cf kauffmaniana (s) Achlya stellata (s) |
USA | [31] |
EU124762 EU124766 EU124754 to EU124757 |
| Pseudacris regilla | LC, 2004 | Stable | Eggs (w) |
Saprolegnia diclina (s) Achlya sp.(s) |
USA | [61] | |
| Pseudacris regilla | LC, 2004 | Stable | Larvae (l) | Saprolegnia ferax | USA | [62] | |
| Pseudacris streckeri | LC. 2015 | Unknown | Tadpoles (w) | Saprolegnia sp. | USA | [56] | |
| Rana arvalis | LC, 2009 | Stable | Eggs (w) |
Saprolegnia (Molding) |
Netherlands | [21] | |
| Rana arvalis | LC, 2009 | Stable | Eggs (w) | Saprolegniaceae | Netherlands | [22] | |
| Rana arvalis | LC, 2009 | Stable | Eggs (l) |
Saprolegnia ferax Saprolegnia parasitica Aphanomyces stellatus Dictyuchus sterilis Leptomitus lacteus (*) |
Poland Ukraine |
[40] | |
| Rana arvalis | LC, 2009 | Stable | Eggs (l) (w) | Saprolegnia spp. | Sweden | [63,64] | |
| Rana arvalis | LC, 2009 | Stable | Eggs (l) (w) | Saprolegnia sp. | Sweden | [65] | |
| Rana aurora | LC, 2015 | Decreasing | Embryos (w) | Saprolegnia ferax | USA | [14] | |
| Rana aurora | LC, 2015 | Decreasing | Larvae (l) | Saprolegnia sp. | USA | [55] | |
| Rana aurora | LC, 2015 | Decreasing | Metamorphs (l) | Saprolegnia sp. | USA | [45] | |
| Rana aurora | LC, 2015 | Decreasing | Eggs (w) |
Saprolegnia spp. (s) Achlya sp.(s) |
USA | [61] | |
| Rana aurora | LC, 2015 | Decreasing | Larvae (l) | Saprolegnia ferax | USA | [62] | |
| Rana cascadae | NT, 2004 | Decreasing | Eggs (l) | Saprolegnia ferax | USA | [13] | |
| Rana cascadae | NT, 2004 | Decreasing | Eggs (w) (l) | Saprolegnia ferax | USA | [44] | |
| Rana cascadae | NT, 2004 | Decreasing | Embryos (l) | Saprolegnia ferax | USA | [54] | |
| Rana cascadae | NT, 2004 | Decreasing | Embryos (w) | Saprolegnia ferax | USA | [14] | |
| Rana cascadae | NT, 2004 | Decreasing | Metamorphs (l) | Saprolegnia sp. | USA | [45] | |
| Rana cascadae | NT, 2004 | Decreasing | Eggs (w) |
Saprolegnia sp. (s) Achlya sp.(s) Leptolegnia sp. (s) |
USA | [61] | |
| Rana cascadae | NT, 2004 | Decreasing | Eggs (w) |
Saprolegnia sp. (s) Saprolegnia ferax (s) |
USA | [46] | JQ974983, JQ974985, JQ974991 |
| Rana catesbeiana | LC, 2015 | Increasing | Eggs (w) (l) | Saprolegnia sp. (s) | USA | [60] | EU071707 |
| Rana clamitans | LC, 2015 | Stable | Eggs (w) (l) Embryos (w) (l) |
Saprolegnia (s) | USA | [66] | EU480454 |
| Rana dalmatina | LC, 2009 | Decreasing | Eggs (l) |
Saprolegnia ferax Saprolegnia parasitica Aphanomyces stellatus Dictyuchus sterilis Leptomitus lacteus (*) |
Ukraine | [40] | |
| Rana esculenta 9 | Eggs (w) | Saprolegniaceae | Netherlands | [22] | |||
| Rana esculenta 9 | Eggs (w) |
Saprolegnia (Molding) |
Netherlands | [21] | |||
| Rana kl. esculenta 10 | Eggs (l) |
Saprolegnia ferax Saprolegnia parasitica Aphanomyces stellatus Dictyuchus sterilis Leptomitus lacteus (*) |
Poland | [40] | |||
| Rana huanrenensis | LC, 2018 | Decreasing | Adult (w) | Saprolegnia diclina (s) | Korea | [67] | AM228848 |
| Rana lessonae 11 | LC, 2008 | Decreasing | Eggs (l) |
Saprolegnia ferax Saprolegnia parasitica Aphanomyces stellatus Dictyuchus sterilis Leptomitus lacteus (*) |
Poland | [40] | |
| Rana luteiventris | LC, 2015 | Decreasing | Eggs (w) |
Saprolegnia sp. (s) Achlya sp.(s) Leptolegnia sp. (s) |
USA | [61] | |
| Rana plancyi chosenica 12 | VU, 2020 | Decreasing | Tadpoles (c) | Saprolegnia australis (s) | Korea | [67] | AM228837 |
| Rana pretiosa | VU, 2004 | Decreasing | Eggs (w) |
Saprolegnia sp. (s) Achlya sp.(s) Leptolegnia sp. (s) |
USA | [61] | |
| Rana ridibunda 13 | LC, 2009 | Increasing | Eggs (l) |
Saprolegnia ferax Saprolegnia parasitica Aphanomyces stellatus Dictyuchus sterilis Leptomitus lacteus (*) |
Poland | [40] | |
| Rana sphenocephala | LC, 2021 | Stable | Eggs (w) (l) | Saprolegnia (s) | USA | [68] |
EU348371 EU348372 |
| Rana sylvatica | LC, 2015 | Stable | Eggs (w) (l) |
Saprolegnia sp. Achlya sp. |
USA | [41] | |
| Rana sylvatica | LC, 2015 | Stable | Embryo (l) |
Achlya sp. Saprolegnia sp. |
USA | [42] | |
| Rana sylvatica | LC, 2015 | Stable | Eggs (w) (l) Embryos (w) (l) |
Saprolegnia (s) | USA | [66] | EU480454 |
| Rana temporaria | LC, 2008 | Stable | Eggs (w) |
Saprolegnia (Molding) |
Netherlands | [21] | |
| Rana temporaria | LC, 2008 | Stable | Eggs (w) | Saprolegniaceae | Netherlands | [22] | |
| Rana temporaria | LC, 2008 | Stable | Eggs (w) | Saprolegnia sp. | UK | [69] | |
| Rana temporaria | LC, 2008 | Stable | Eggs (l) |
Saprolegnia ferax Saprolegnia parasitica Aphanomyces stellatus Dictyuchus sterilis Leptomitus lacteus (*) |
Poland | [40] | |
| Rana temporaria | LC, 2008 | Stable | Eggs (l) | “Saprolegnia diclina-S. parasitica complex” | UK | [47] | |
| Rana temporaria | LC, 2008 | Stable | Eggs (w) | Saprolegnia spp. (s) | Scotland | [70] | |
| Scinax garbei | LC, 2004 | Stable | Eggs (n.d) | Saprolegnia sp. 2 (s) | Ecuador | [36] |
KF718071 KF718072 |
| Spea bombifrons | LC, 2015 | Stable | Tadpoles (w) | Saprolegnia sp. | USA | [71] | |
| Xenopus laevis | LC, 2020 | Increasing | Adult (c) | Saprolegnia sp. | USA | [72] | |
| Xenopus laevis | LC, 2020 | Increasing | Embryo (l) |
S. hypogyna (s) S. delica (s) S. diclina (s) S. parasitica (N12) (s) S. ferax (SAP442) (s) |
Scotland | [15] |
KF420214 KF420220 KF420212/KF420236 FN186030 AM228845 |
| Xenopus longipes | CR, 2017 | Decreasing | Adults (w) | “Saprolegniosis” | Cameroon | [24] | |
| Urodela | |||||||
| Ambystoma gracile | LC, 2015 | Stable | Larvae (l) | Saprolegnia sp. | USA | [55] | |
| Ambystoma gracile | LC, 2015 | Stable | Egg (w) |
Saprolegnia ferax (s) Saprolegnia sp. (s) |
USA | [31] |
EU124763 EU124752 |
| Ambystoma macrodactylum | LC, 2015 | Stable | Eggs (w) |
Saprolegnia sp. (s) Leptolegnia sp. (s) |
USA | [61] | |
| Ambystoma maculatum | LC, 2015 | Stable | Eggs (w) (l) |
Saprolegnia sp. Achlya sp. |
USA | [41] | |
| Ambystoma maculatum | LC, 2015 | Stable | Eggs (w) (l) Embryos (w) (l) |
Saprolegnia (s) | USA | [66] | EU480454 |
| Ambystoma maculatum | LC, 2015 | Stable | Larvae (l) | Saprolegnia sp. | USA | [73] | |
| Ambystoma maculatum | LC, 2015 | Stable | Eggs (w) (l) |
Saprolegnia torulosa (s) S. diclina (s) S. turfosa (s) Achlya papilosa (s) |
USA | [74] |
KC758888 to KC758895 |
| Ambystoma talpoideum | LC, 2004 | Stable | Eggs (w) (l) | “Water mold infection” | USA | [75] | |
| Ambystoma tigrinum | LC, 2015 | Stable | Larvae (l) | Saprolegnia | USA | [76] | |
| Andrias davidianus | CR, 2004 | Decreasing | Adult (c) | Saprolegniosis (**) | USA | [25] | |
| Andrias japonicus | CR, 2004 | Decreasing | Eggs (c) | “Water mold infection” | Japan | [77] | |
| Hynobius dunni | VU, 2021 | Decreasing | Eggs (c) | Saprolegniosis (**) | UK | [26] | |
| Notophthalmus viridescens | LC, 2015 | Stable | Adult (w) | Achlya sp. (s) | USA | [57] | GU014277 |
| Triturus vulgaris 14 | LC, 2009 | Stable | Eggs (l) |
Saprolegnia ferax Saprolegnia parasitica Aphanomyces stellatus Dictyuchus sterilis Leptomitus lacteus (*) |
Poland | [40] | |
| Triturus vulgaris 14 | LC, 2009 | Stable | Eggs (l) Adults (l) |
Saprolegnia sp. | UK | [78] |
(*) Other species of Saprolegnia sp., Achlya sp. were identified, but these two appeared in all the amphibian species analyzed. (**) Saprolegniosis agent not confirmed as Saprolegnia sp. Note: Since cited publications, some species were reclassified in relation to their original publication. We next list the changes in the present order: name on the publication—actual name used based on AmphibiaWeb site [79]. 1—Bufo americanus—Anaxyrus americanus; 2—Bufo boreas—Anaxyrus boreas boreas or A. b. halophilus; 3—Bufo bufo—Bufo bufo or B. spinosus; 4—Bufo calamita—Epidalea calamita; 5—Bufo marinus—Rhinella marina; 6—Hyla regilla—Pseudacris regilla or Hyla wrightorum; 7—Lithobates berlandieri—Rana berlandieri; 8—Lithobates catesbeiana—Rana catesbeiana; 9—Rana esculenta—Pelophylax ridibundus or P. lessonae; 10—Rana kl. Esculenta—Pelophylax kl. esculentus; 11—Rana lessonae—Pelophylax lessonae; 12—Rana plancyi chosenica—Pelophylax chosenicus; 13—Rana ridibunda—Pelophylax ridibundus; 14—Triturus vulgaris—Lissotriton vulgaris.