Table 3.
Summary of recent studies using natural polymers in skeletal muscle tissue engineering.
| Ref | Applied Materials | Cell Type | Structure/Production Method | Advantages |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| [196] | Collagen/PPy | C2C12 mouse myoblast | 3D, highly aligned, and electrically conductive collagen scaffold via directional lyophilization of a polypyrrole-doped collagen suspension | Increasing electrical conductivity by using polypyrrole (PPy) |
| [197] | Collagen | C2C12 murine skeletal muscle myoblast cell | Fused deposition modeling (FDM) | Increased IGF1 mRNA and, Akt, p70S6K, and 4EBP1 phosphorylation, along with myotube hypertrophy and improved designed muscle functionality |
| [198] | Alginate/Gelatin/Heparin | Human skeletal muscle progenitor cells (hSMPCs) | Hydrogel | Cost-effective and an alternative for commercial biomaterials |
| [199] | Alginate | Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) | Hydrogel | IGF-1 and VEGF165 had significant effects on muscle progenitor cells |
| [188] | Alginate/Gelatin | C2C12 | Extrusion-bioprinting of hydrogel | Alginate–gelatin hydrogel is a simple and cost-efficient biodegradable bio-ink |
| [200] | Gelatin/Hyaluronic acid | C2C12 | Hydrogel | Myotube production was established throughout the hydrogel when both gelatin and hyaluronic acid were present, and no shrinkage occurred |
| [201] | Fibrin/Polyethylene oxide (PEO) | C2C12 | C2C12s are encapsulated and electrospun into fibrin/polyethylene oxide (PEO) microfiber bundles with aqueous solution electrospinning. | Loading C2C12s as cellular aggregates increasing cell viability |
| [202] | Fibrin | Muscle progenitor cells (MPCs) adipogenic | Hydrogel | Adipogenic differentiation was decreased by myogenic differentiation but not prevented, and MPCs produced from diabetic animals had a higher capacity for adipogenic differentiation. |
| [203] | Fibrin/Laminin | C2C12 | Hydrogel | Integrating laminin-111 into fibrin hydrogels is possible |
| [204] | Fibrin/Alginate | C2C12 | Three-dimensional engineering of skeletal muscle tissue using electrospun fibrin microfiber bundles | To promote tissue formation, myoblasts should undergo biophysical stimulation |
| [205] | Fibrin/Thrombin | C2C12 | 3D printing, co-extruding fibrinogen and thrombin | Enhancing the regeneration of functional muscle tissue by tuning the topographic features of scaffolds |
| [206] | Fibrin/Collagen | Primary human skeletal muscle cells | Hydrogels | The Young’s modulus increased twofold, maximum strain decreased 2.5 times, and collagen deposition increased 1.6 times |
| [207] | Gelatin methacrylate (GelMA) | C2C12 | Under single UV exposure, silicone tubes-based coagulant produces cell-laden GelMA microfibers | Increased uniaxial strain ratio of up to 35–45% and significantly improved myotube contractility |
| [208] | Fibrin + Alginate | Primary human myoblasts | Injectable gel | Optimization of myoblast transplantation can include consideration of cell state |
| [209] | Fibrin/Alginate/Collagen | Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) | The use of 3D printing to create scaffolds composed of multiple gel layers and hollow channels | They developed a very cost-effective 3D printing system |
| [210] | Fibrin/Collagen-I | Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) | Parallel nanofiber electrospinning | When myogenic differentiation occurs, IGFBPs play a role, varying based on culture and stimulation conditions. |
| [211] | Fibrin | Muscle-derived stem cells (MDSCs) | Gel | SW033291 increased MDSC myogenic differentiation and myotube creation in a significant way. |
| [212] | Gelatin | C2C12 | Cell-based 3D bioprinting | The dECM components accelerated myogenic differentiation, while topographical cues caused cellular alignment |
| [213] | Gelatin | C2C12 | Cryogel | Myoblasts organize themselves around this pore structure and colonize the entire three-dimensional structure |
| [214] | Gelatin/Chitosan | L929 fibroblasts cell line | Hydrogel–3D printing | Increased cell viability |
| [215] | Gelatin/Alginate | C2C12 | Hydrogel–3D printing | Adding calcium peroxide (CPO) as an oxygen-generating source to bio-ink can improve cell metabolic activity in Gelma bio-ink |
| [216] | Gelatin | C2C12 | Hydrogel | Soft substrates can support longer-term cell culture |
| [217] | Fibrin | Bovine satellite cells (BSCs) | Hydrogel | Up to a 15-fold increase in myoglobin expression in vascular smooth muscle cells |
| [218] | Gelatin | C2C12 | Hydrogel | An increase in sarcomere formation in myotube cultures using micropatterned gelatin hydrogels |