Table 1.
Physiological effects in agricultural plants from various microcystin exposure routes.
| Species | Stage of Development | Route of Exposure | Microystin Present | Concentration of Microcystin (µg/L) | Physiological Effects | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Brassica juncea (mustard greens) | Mature Plants | Soil | MCs | 150 | Reduced plant height and weight | [70,71,72,73,74] |
| Brassica napus (rape seed) | Seeds | Soil | MCs | 600–3000 | Reduced germination, conductivity, and phototrophic response | [70] |
| Dacus carota (carrot) | Mature Plants, Seeds | Soil | MCs | 50 | Reduced biomass of leaves and taproot | [71,72] |
| Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato) | Mature Plants | Soil | MCs | 150 | Reduced plant height and weight | [77] |
| Lactuca sativa (lettuce) | Seeds, Seedlings | Germination, Soil | MCs, MC-LR | 2–5000 | Reduced radicle length | [75,76] |
| Lepidium sativum (watercress) | Seeds | Germination, Soil | MCs, MC-LR, MC-RR | 500–20,000 | Reduced radicle length and shoot weight | [76] |
| Medicago sativa (alfalfa) | Seeds, Seedlings | Irrigation | MCs | 5–20 | Reduced nodule production, reduced nodule number, reduced biomass | [77,78] |
| Oryza sativa (rice) | Seedlings | Hydroponics | MCs, MC-LR | 1–3000 | Reduced biomass of leaves, stems, and roots, reduced starch in grains, reduced root surface area | [78] |
| Phaseolus vulgaris (green bean) | Mature Plants, Seeds | Germination, Soil | MCs | 1–15,000 | Reduced chlorophyll content, delayed development, reduced bean length and number produced | [78] |
| Spinacia oleracea (spinach) | Mature Plants, Seedlings | Soil, Hydroponics | MCs, MC-LR | 0.5 | Reduced photosynthesis and biomass production | [79] |
| Solanum lycopersicum (tomato) | Developed Plants, Seeds | Soil | MCs | 3–1000 | Reduced biomass, reduced flower production, low sugar content | [76,77] |
| Triticum aestivum (wheat) | Seeds, Seedlings | Germination, Soil | MCs | 0.5–20,000 | Reduced germination, reduced photosynthesis, reduced biomass | [77] |
| Zea mays (corn) | Seeds, Seedlings | Germination, Hydroponics, Soil | MCs, MC-LR, MC-RR | 5–3000 | Reduced plant height, reduced root weight | [72] |
Total concentration of microcystins includes all studied variants. Concentration depicts range covered across multiple studies on same crop species, with first number being for the earliest stage of development. MCs = total concentration of all studied microcystin variants; LR = microcystin leucine arginine; RR = microcystin arginine-arginine; YR = microcystin tyrosine arginine.