Table 1.

An updated summary of antioxidant activities of fucoxanthin: In vitro and in vivo studies.

Experimental Model (In Vitro/In Vivo)	Treatment (Dose, Route and Duration)	Major Outcomes	Reference
In vitro cell-free assays	0.01–2 mg/mL extracted from F. vesiculosus, F. serratus, and L. digitata in 5% fish oil in water emulsion; butylated hydroxytoluene as positive control	↑ DPPH scavenging and iron-chelating activity; ↓ reducing power	[30]
LPS-induced RAW 264.7 and HepG2, Caco-2 and HeLa cells	0.1–50 μg/mL (purity ≥ 99.2%) extracted from P. tricornutum in 0.1% DMSO, pre-treatment for 24 h; staurosporine 1 μM as positive control	↑ DPPH activity with IC50 value of 201.2 ± 21.4 µg/mL ↓ metabolic activity and caspase 3/7	[7]
OVA-induced-asthma mouse	50 mg/kg b.w., treatment (N/A)	↓ ROS; ↑ antioxidant enzyme activity; ↓ inflammatory cytokine markers	[32]
Alcohol-induced liver injury in mice	10–40 mg/kg, orally for 7 days; silibinin 80 mg/kg as positive control	↑ T-AOC, GSH-Px, SOD and CAT; ↑ Nrf2, NQO1, HO-1 and GCLM	[9]
4-HNE induced-diabetic retinopathy in ARPE-19 cells	0.1–0.5 mg/mL, post-treatment for 24 or 72 h	↑ Cell viability; ↓ DNA damage; ↓ cleaved PARP; Nrf2 protein; ↓ ICAM-1 protein expression; ↑ ZO-1 expression; ↓ ROS; ↑ CAT	[23]
In vitro cell-free assays	0.05–0.3 mg/mL extracted from Isochrysis galbana	↑ DPPH activity with EC50 value of 0.2 mg/mL	[31]
UVA-induced reconstructed human skin tissue	0.5% extracted from D. anceps, pre-treatment for 1 h	↓ intracellular ROS	[34]
LPS-induced uveitis in rats	1–10 mg/kg b.w. in 0.1% DMSO, Orally for 7 days	↑ Nrf2 in ocular tissues; ↑ SOD; ↓ MDA	[33]
TGFβ1-induced fibrosis in human LX-2 cells	FxOH 0.1–0.5 μM (purity ≥ 97%) and AcxA 0.2–1 μM (purity ≥ 97%) in DMSO, pre-treatment for 1–24 h	↓ ROS; ↑ Nrf2 expression	[6]
Cadmium-induced thyroid gland injury mice	10–50 mg/kg b.w., orally for 14 days; thyroid tablets 50 mg/kg as positive control	↑ POD, SOD, CAT and APX; ↓ mRNA expressions of ERK1 and 2, caspase3, 8 and 9	[8]

↑: upregulation; ↓: downregulation.