Table 5.

An updated summary of antidiabetic activities of fucoxanthin: In vitro and in vivo studies.

Experimental Model (In Vitro/In Vivo)	Treatment (Dose, Route and Duration)	Major Outcomes	Reference
Type-2 diabetic mice	0.2–0.4%/day (purity ≥ 98%) extracted from Laminaria japonica in soybean oil, orally for 6 weeks; metformin 0.02% as positive control	↓ body weight and blood glucose; ↓ plasma insulin, HOMA-IR levels and lipid profile; ↑ Glucokinase mRNA: ↓ phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase mRNA; ↑ glycogen synthesis: ↑ IRS-1, PI3K, p-Akt and p-AMPK signaling pathways; ↑ PPARα, p-ACC and CPT-1 protein expression	[66]
STZ-and NA-induced diabetic rats	13–65 mg/kg b.w. extracted from Laminaria japonica, orally for 4 weeks; rosiglitazone 0.571 mg/kg as positive control	↓ plasma glucose, insulin level and HOMA-IR; ↑ CAT, SOD and GPx; ↓ TNF-α and IL-6; ↑ luteinizing and testosterone hormones	[3]
HG-and 4-HNE-induced diabetic retinopathy in ARPE-19 cells	0.1–0.5 mg/mL, co-treatment for 24–72 h	↓ cell damage; ↓ inflammation response; ↓ apoptosis; ↓ cell adhesion factor protein; ↓ reactive oxygen species; ↑ antioxidant activity	[23]
STZ-and NA-induced type 2 diabetic rats	400 mg/kg b.w. (purity ≥ 54%) extracted from S. angustifolium, encapsulated with porous starch, orally for 3 weeks; metformin 50 mg/kg as positive control	↓ weight gain and blood glucose; ↑ plasma insulin; ↓ lipid profile ↑ pancreatic beta cells	[68]
HG-induced GMCs in diabetic nephropathy	2 μM, co-treatment for 24 h	↓ fibronectin and collagen IV expression; ↑ Sirt1/Nrf2 signaling proteins	[67]
STZ-induced diabetic rats	200 mg/kg b.w., orally for 12 weeks	↑ renal function and hypertrophy; ↓ glomerulosclerosis; ↓ fibronectin and collagen IV expression; ↑ Sirt1/Nrf2 signaling proteins; ↑ SOD and HO-1; ↓ malondialdehyde level

↑: upregulation; ↓: downregulation.