Table 4.
Comparison of dietary intake between sensorial profile groups (typical performance and probable + definite difference) and neurodevelopment groups (autism spectrum disorder vs. typical development group) by two-way ANCOVA.
| Dietary Intake | ASD-Total Group | TD Group | All | Pair Comparisons | Main Effects | Interactions | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Typical Performance (n = 11) |
Probable + Definite Difference (n = 21) |
Typical Performance (n = 27) |
Probable + Definite Difference (n = 2) |
Typical Performance (n = 38) |
Probable + Definite Difference (n = 23) |
p 1 | p 2 | p 3 | p 4 | p 5 | Sensory Profile Factor | Neurodevelopment Factor | SP × ND Factor | |
| Dairy products | ||||||||||||||
| Milk + Yogurt (g/day) | 95.18 ± 186.15 | 87.21 ± 213.50 | 358.28 ± 244.94 | 287.50 ± 88.38 | 282.12 ± 257.19 | 104.62 ± 212.42 | 0.009 | 0.958 | 0.004 | 0.640 | 0.085 | NS | NS | NS |
| Cheese (g/day) | 8.91 ± 12.37 | 7.10 ± 12.48 | 14.36 ± 13.43 | 46.80 ± 2.54 | 12.78 ± 13.21 | 10.56 ± 16.51 | 0.064 | 0.051 | 0.274 | 0.292 | 0.009 | * | NS | NS |
| T. Dairy (g/day) | 8.91 ± 12.37 | 7.10 ± 12.48 | 14.36 ± 13.43 | 46.80 ± 2.54 | 12.78 ± 13.21 | 10.56 ± 16.51 | 0.019 | 0.532 | 0.037 | 0.950 | 0.061 | NS | NS | NS |
| Vegetable drinks | ||||||||||||||
| Vegetable drinks (ml/day) | 206.54 ± 378.24 | 234.52 ± 356.66 | 28.70 ± 122.61 | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 80.18 ± 236.45 | 214.13 ± 346.71 | 0.367 | . | 0.365 | . | 0.228 | NS | NS | NS |
| Cereals | ||||||||||||||
| Cereals with gluten (g/day) | 104.24 ± 105.77 | 99.81 ± 150.17 | 237.04 ± 111.57 | 230.40 ± 27.44 | 198.60 ± 124.48 | 111.17 ± 148.16 | 0.148 | 0.962 | 0.152 | 0.991 | 0.458 | NS | NS | NS |
| Cereals without gluten (g/day) | 69.06 ± 71.86 | 111.35 ± 100.00 | 30.84 ± 60.14 | 20.00 ± 0.00 | 41.90 ± 65.16 | 103.40 ± 98.91 | 0.289 | 0.591 | 0.755 | 0.152 | 0.936 | NS | NS | NS |
| T. Cereals (with and without gluten) (g/day) | 130.15 ± 97.38 | 173.25 ± 117.86 | 235.17 ± 103.72 | 216.43 ± 6.54 | 204.77 ± 111.59 | 177.00 ± 113.07 | 0.036 | 0.799 | 0.060 | 0.672 | 0.419 | NS | NS | NS |
| Meats, fish, and eggs | ||||||||||||||
| Meat (g/day) | 45.36 ± 29.14 | 36.60 ± 25.70 | 31.07 ± 18.75 | 39.50 ± 0.70 | 35.21 ± 22.80 | 36.85 ± 24.52 | 0.047 | 0.632 | 0.912 | 0.153 | 0.578 | NS | NS | NS |
| Minced meat (g/day) | 14.74 ± 16.79 | 50.11 ± 106.49 | 17.97 ± 13.92 | 40.00 ± 0.00 | 17.04 ± 14.65 | 49.23 ± 101.57 | 0.247 | 0.268 | 0.203 | 0.291 | 0.130 | NS | NS | NS |
| Chicken (g/day) | 26.54 ± 13.50 | 49.61 ± 53.01 | 29.48 ± 19.88 | 30.00 ± 14.14 | 28.63 ± 18.14 | 47.91 ± 50.95 | 0.137 | 0.739 | 0.594 | 0.469 | 0.313 | NS | NS | NS |
| Pork (g/day) | 7.03 ± 12.09 | 10.73 ± 20.28 | 2.62 ± 3.71 | 1.90 ± 1.55 | 3.90 ± 7.30 | 9.96 ± 19.50 | 0.736 | 0.899 | 0.550 | 0.998 | 0.959 | NS | NS | NS |
| Milanesa with gluten (g/day) | 11.12 ± 10.91 | 16.58 ± 40.59 | 16.10 ± 12.64 | 16.12 ± 19.62 | 14.66 ± 12.24 | 16.54 ± 38.93 | 0.179 | 0.586 | 0.632 | 0.330 | 0.859 | NS | NS | NS |
| Milanesa without gluten (g/day) | 1.70 ± 2.37 | 8.14 ± 15.70 | 1.33 ± 4.48 | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 1.44 ± 3.96 | 7.43 ± 15.15 | 0.118 | . | 0.517 | . | 0.342 | NS | NS | NS |
| Eggs (g/day) | 27.81 ± 34.52 | 42.60 ± 64.41 | 28.08 ± 19.23 | 17.79 ± 8.06 | 28.01 ± 24.12 | 41.34 ± 61.89 | 0.374 | 0.762 | 0.282 | 0.817 | 0.849 | NS | NS | NS |
| Fish | ||||||||||||||
| Fresh fish (g/day) | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 0.03 ± 0.17 | 7.133 ± 5.33 | 23.00 ± 24.04 | 5.06 ± 5.54 | 2.03 ± 8.37 | . | 0.168 | . | . | . | NS | . | . |
| Canned fish (g/day) | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 5.33 ± 10.14 | 11.20 ± 0.00 | 0.97 ± 3.22 | 2.72 ± 7.34 | . | 0.892 | . | . | 0.892 | NS | . | . |
| Fish (fresh and canned) (g/day) | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 0.04 ± 0.17 | 12.47 ± 10.65 | 34.20 ± 24.04 | 8.86 ± 10.60 | 3.01 ± 11.09 | . | 0.085 | . | . | . | NS | . | . |
| T. food source of proteins (g/day) | 147.08 ± 62.82 | 227.20 ± 127.38 | 158.73 ± 50.84 | 189.31 ± 54.88 | 155.36 ± 53.96 | 223.90 ± 122.50 | 0.034 | 0.515 | 0.423 | 0.905 | 0.112 | NS | NS | NS |
| Butter, ghee, and oils | ||||||||||||||
| Butter (g/day) | 0.43 ± 0.76 | 1.39 ± 5.43 | 2.86 ± 5.45 | 3.90 ± 5.51 | 2.16 ± 4.72 | 1.60 ± 5.36 | 0.674 | 0.388 | 0.637 | 0.525 | 0.335 | NS | NS | NS |
| Ghee (g/day) | 0.29 ± 0.67 | 1.47 ± 5.46 | 0.06 ±0.27 | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 0.13 ± 0.43 | 1.34 ± 5.22 | 0.605 | . | . | . | . | NS | . | . |
| Coconut oil (g/day) | 5.43 ± 11.54 | 5.80 ± 8.96 | 1.02 ± 3.62 | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 2.30 ± 7.02 | 5.30 ± 8.70 | 0.436 | . | 0.049 | . | 0.650 | NS | ** | NS |
| Oil (g/day) | 22.08 ± 16.19 | 23.81 ± 17.05 | 18.95 ± 12.34 | 37.50 ± 17.67 | 19.86 ± 13.41 | 25.00 ± 17.15 | 0.576 | 0.150 | 0.984 | 0.283 | 0.129 | NS | NS | NS |
| T. food source of fat (g/day) | 28.24 ± 24.25 | 33.67 ± 20.53 | 22.91 ± 14.70 | 41.40 ± 23.19 | 24.45 ± 17.79 | 34.34 ± 20.31 | 0.745 | 0.189 | 0.858 | 0.250 | 0.194 | NS | NS | NS |
Results expressed as means ± SD. Statistically significant differences (indicated in bold, p < 0.05; adjusted for birth weight, nutritional status, with/without diet): (a) Two-way ANCOVA, comparisons between: 1 typical performance and probable + definite deference in ASD group, 2 typical performance and probable + definite deference in TD group, 3 typical performance in ASD and TD, 4 probable + definite deference in ASD and TD, * significant main effect of sensory profile group factor, ** significant main effect of neurodevelopment factor (significant main effects and interactions are described in result section), NS: no significant; (b) One-way ANCOVA, comparison between 5 typical performance and probable + definite deference in all participants. ASD: autism spectrum disorder; ASD-total group: children with ASD with and without restricted diet, TD: typical development, T: total, SP: sensory profile, ND: neurodevelopment, All: ASD + TD children.