ACE	angiotensin-converting enzymes
ALM	appendicular lean mass
BALP	alkaline phosphatase bone
BIA	bioimpedance analysis
BMD	bone mass density
BMI	body mass index
CAD	coronary artery disease
COP	Circulating osteoprogenitor
CTX	C-terminal cross-linked telopeptide
DEXA	Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry
EWGSOP2	European Working Group on Sarcopenia in the Elderly
FDA	Food and Drug Administration
FFC	Falls and Fractures Clinic
FrOST	Franconian Osteopenia and Sarcopenia Trial
GH	the growth hormone
GMV	gluteus maximus muscle volume
HbA1c	glycated hemoglobin
Hb	hemoglobin
HIT-DRT	High-intensity dynamic resistance exercise
hpCRP	high-sensitivity C-reactive protein
HR	hazard ratio
GH	growth hormone
IGF-1;	insulin-like growth factor 1
GH-IGF-1 axis	growth hormone-insulin-like growth factor 1 axis
IR	insulin resistance
MRI	Magnetic resonance imaging
MSCs	Mesenchymal stem cells
NCDs	Noncommunicable diseases
NOF	Nepean Osteoporosis and Frailty Study
OC	osteocalcin
OS	Osteosarcopenia;
PCOS	Polycystic ovary syndrome
PTH	parathyroid hormone
RANK-L	receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappa-β ligand
RCT	randomized controlled trials
RE	resistance exercise
SDI	Spine Deformity Index
SHBG	sex hormone-binding globulin
SMI	skeletal muscle index
SMD	standardized mean difference
SPPB	Short Physical Performance Battery
STS	sit-to-stand test
TBS	trabecular bone score
TD2M	Type 2 diabetes mellitus
TRAP	tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase
WPS	whey protein supplementation