Table 5.
Most harmful mycotoxins that often contaminate human food.
| Type * | Genus | Foods | Clinical Picture | Molecular Mechanisms | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) | Aspergillus | Nuts, peanuts, maize | Extremely potent carcinogen, strongly linked with liver cancer; immunosuppression; stunted growth | Mutagenic and genotoxic effects: binds N7 of guanine; GC to TA transversions; (–) transcription, (+) oxidative stress | [191,194,195] |
| Ochratoxin A (OTA) | Aspergillus | Cereals, coffee, figs, raisins, pork kidneys | Nephrotoxic effects in all species tested; liver damage, immune suppression, and teratogenic effects in animals | (–) Phe metabolism; (–) mitochondrial ATP production; (–) tumor-suppressor gene dmrt-1 in mice; (+) lipid peroxidation | [195,196] |
| Zearalenone (ZEA) | Fusarium | Maize, corn, other cereals | Reduced fertility, stillbirths in females; testicular atrophy and reduced spermatogenesis in males; hemato- and hepatoxic effects | ZEA-estrogen receptor complex is translocated into the nucleus which regulates the transcription of many genes | [195,197] |
| Fumonisins | Fusarium | Maize, rice, beans, beer, soybeans | Suppression of the immune response; pulmonary edema, esophageal cancer | (–) Sphingolipid synthesis; (–) mitochondrial ETC; (+) ROS generation; (+) cytotoxicity | [191,195] |
| Trichothecenes | Fusarium, Cephalosporium, Myrothecium, Stachybotrys, Trichothecium | Grains: rice, barley, oats, maize, eggs, milk, meat | Alimentary toxic aleukia (ATA): fever, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, agranulocytosis, necrotic angina, bleeding; reduced serum levels of WBC and Ig in mice | (–) Translation; (–) mitochondrial ETC; (+) lipid peroxidation and membrane remodeling; (+) apoptosis | [191,196,198,199] |
| Patulin | Penicillium | Apples, pears, other fruits | Neurotoxic and immunotoxic effects reported in animals | As yet unknown | [195] |
| Citrinin | Penicillium, Aspergillus, Monascus | Cereals, Italian sausages | Nephrotoxic effects in all species tested; reproductive toxicity and chromosome aberrations in mice | (–) DNA and RNA synthesis; (–) microtubules assembly; (–) HSP90 multichaperone complex; (+) ROS generation | [191] |
| Ergot alkaloids | Claviceps | Various grasses and grains | Ergotism, convulsions, ataxia, gangrene, abortion | As yet unknown | [191,195] |
* Trichothecenes mycotoxins are classified in groups A (T-2, HT-2); B (Deoxynivalenol, DON); C (Crotocin), and D (Verrucarins, Roridin, Satratoxins). Designations: (–), inhibits; (+), stimulates; WBC, white blood cells; Ig, immunoglobulins; ROS, reactive oxygen species; ETC, electron-transport chain; Phe, Phenylalanine.