Table 2.
Results of OLS regression analyses for all outcomes (mental health, quality of life, caregiver burden) with models (1–4) adjusted for caregiver characteristics (sociodemographic background and health), models (5–8) additionally adjusted for aspects of care performance (care tasks and caregiving time) and models (9–12) additionally adjusted for pandemic indicators (perceived impairment in daily life and caregiving routine and perceived danger for themselves and for care recipient; fully adjusted models)
| Depressive symptoms (OLS) (1) | Anxiety symptoms (OLS) (2) | Quality of life (OLS) (3) | Caregiver burden (OLS) (4) | Depressive symptoms (OLS) (5) | Anxiety symptoms (OLS) (6) | Quality of life (OLS) (7) | Caregiver burden (OLS) (8) | Depressive symptoms (OLS) (9) | Anxiety symptoms (OLS) (10) | Quality of life (OLS) (11) | Caregiver burden (OLS) (12) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gender of informal caregiver (réf. male) | 1.00* | 1.38** | –2.16** | 2.00* | 0.79 | 1.12* | –1.90* | 1.06 | 0.80+ | 1.03* | –1.81* | 1.13 |
| (0.48) | (0.45) | (0.68) | (0.86) | (0.49) | (0.48) | (0.74) | (0.78) | (0.48) | (0.46) | (0.74) | (0.76) | |
| Age | –0.11** | –0.07+ | 0.07 | –0.02 | –0.12** | –0.08+ | 0.05 | 0.04 | –0.13** | –0.09* | 0.05 | –0.01 |
| (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.05) | (0.06) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.05) | (0.06) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.05) | (0.06) | |
| Highest educational degree (ref. upper secondary school) | ||||||||||||
| Lower secondary school | –0.27 | –0.52 | –1.93* | 0.46 | –0.74 | –0.65 | –1.74+ | –0.03 | –0.47 | –0.38 | –2.15* | 0.19 |
| (0.67) | (0.63) | (0.97) | (1.15) | (0.72) | (0.64) | (1.05) | (1.11) | (0.72) | (0.65) | (1.08) | (1.08) | |
| Intermediate secondary school | –0.50 | –0.63 | –1.04 | 1.19 | –0.38 | –0.40 | –0.75 | 1.26 | –0.45 | –0.34 | –0.90 | 0.89 |
| (0.57) | (0.52) | (0.80) | (1.02) | (0.60) | (0.54) | (0.83) | (0.95) | (0.57) | (0.53) | (0.81) | (0.89) | |
| Polytechnic secondary school | –1.33 | –0.83 | –0.46 | –0.59 | –1.43 | –0.61 | –0.62 | –0.65 | –1.70+ | –0.84 | –0.61 | –0.90 |
| (0.82) | (0.76) | (1.19) | (1.49) | (0.89) | (0.84) | (1.32) | (1.32) | (0.89) | (0.83) | (1.33) | (1.23) | |
| Qualification for applied upper secondary school | –0.23 | –0.53 | –0.69 | –0.77 | 0.18 | –0.13 | –1.01 | –0.05 | 0.21 | –0.16 | –1.07 | 0.12 |
| (0.79) | (0.73) | (1.07) | (1.40) | (0.83) | (0.78) | (1.12) | (1.35) | (0.81) | (0.75) | (1.14) | (1.35) | |
| Marital status (ref. married/partnership) | ||||||||||||
| Divorced | –0.45 | 0.53 | 0.46 | –2.96* | –0.49 | 0.95 | 0.12 | –1.50 | –0.57 | 0.76 | 0.41 | –1.57 |
| (0.77) | (0.75) | (0.99) | (1.24) | (0.75) | (0.83) | (1.07) | (1.25) | (0.74) | (0.81) | (1.09) | (1.26) | |
| Widowed | 0.57 | 0.00 | 1.71 | –4.81** | 1.15 | 1.30 | –0.40 | –3.13 | 1.45 | 1.81 + | –0.29 | –2.16 |
| (0.82) | (0.95) | (1.44) | (1.85) | (0.89) | (0.90) | (1.75) | (1.90) | (0.97) | (0.95) | (1.58) | (1.88) | |
| Single | –0.30 | 0.38 | –1.38 | –2.29+ | –0.49 | 0.20 | –2.12 | –1.96 | –0.37 | 0.31 | –2.14 | –1.67 |
| (0.88) | (0.82) | (1.20) | (1.26) | (0.96) | (0.91) | (1.38) | (1.29) | (0.87) | (0.84) | (1.33) | (1.25) | |
| Living situation (ref. living alone in private household) | ||||||||||||
| Living with others in private household | –0.43 | –0.10 | 0.36 | –1.52 | –0.23 | 0.14 | –0.21 | –1.49 | –0.12 | 0.23 | –0.50 | –1.11 |
| (0.65) | (0.62) | (0.90) | (1.16) | (0.73) | (0.71) | (1.00) | (1.17) | (0.71) | (0.69) | (0.94) | (1.17) | |
| Living in assisted living, retirement home or nursing home | –1.27 | –1.44 | 3.54 | –6.45*** | –3.11 + | –1.31 | 5.92 | –9.67*** | –3.70** | –1.37 | 6.49+ | –10.10*** |
| (1.99) | (1.35) | (3.66) | (1.84) | (1.75) | (1.42) | (4.38) | (1.89) | (1.26) | (1.18) | (3.74) | (2.13) | |
| Children in the household (ref. no) | ||||||||||||
| Yes, children ≤13 years | –0.08 | –0.03 | 0.12 | –1.65 | –0.24 | –0.29 | –0.23 | –0.02 | –0.25 | –0.23 | –0.16 | 0.54 |
| (0.77) | (0.73) | (1.16) | (1.37) | (0.76) | (0.73) | (1.17) | (1.36) | (0.76) | (0.74) | (1.18) | (1.33) | |
| Yes, children between 14 and 18 years | 0.67 | 0.43 | –0.14 | 0.64 | 1.15 | 0.66 | 0.12 | 1.48 | 1.19+ | 0.62 | –0.01 | 1.82+ |
| (0.82) | (0.69) | (0.92) | (1.25) | (0.74) | (0.68) | (1.00) | (1.04) | (0.72) | (0.67) | (1.01) | (0.98) | |
| Employment status (ref. 3 employed [full-time]) | ||||||||||||
| Employed (part-time) | –0.53 | –0.55 | 0.68 | –0.05 | –0.81 | –0.55 | 0.73 | –0.20 | –1.02+ | –0.75 | 0.82 | –0.65 |
| (0.62) | (0.60) | (0.87) | (1.14) | (0.61) | (0.60) | (0.89) | (1.04) | (0.59) | (0.58) | (0.86) | (0.97) | |
| Marginally employed | –1.38+ | –1.49+ | 2.83* | –5.37** | –1.54+ | –2.13* | 2.84+ | –5.28** | –1.54+ | –2.12* | 3.71* | –5.21** |
| (0.80) | (0.88) | (1.31) | (1.82) | (0.82) | (0.92) | (1.64) | (1.82) | (0.90) | (0.93) | (1.79) | (1.63) | |
| Retired | –0.34 | –0.52 | 0.90 | –0.86 | –0.39 | –0.60 | 1.66 | –1.42 | –0.43 | –0.64 | 1.67 | –1.20 |
| (0.82) | (0.79) | (1.07) | (1.38) | (0.88) | (0.85) | (1.15) | (1.33) | (0.88) | (0.87) | (1.16) | (1.30) | |
| Unemployed | 1.28 | 0.89 | –0.28 | –0.15 | 1.46 | 1.26 | –0.22 | –1.19 | 1.07 | 0.81 | 0.52 | –1.88 |
| (0.93) | (0.81) | (1.24) | (1.63) | (0.96) | (0.85) | (1.27) | (1.40) | (0.96) | (0.85) | (1.21) | (1.33) | |
| Monthly household net income1 | –0.14 | 0.03 | 0.38** | –0.25 | –0.23* | 0.04 | 0.35* | –0.21 | –0.23* | 0.05 | 0.36** | –0.20 |
| (0.10) | (0.09) | (0.13) | (0.17) | (0.10) | (0.10) | (0.14) | (0.16) | (0.09) | (0.09) | (0.14) | (0.14) | |
| Chronic physical illnesses | 0.85*** | 0.72*** | –0.49* | 0.71* | 0.85*** | 0.77*** | –0.53+ | 0.50 | 0.85*** | 0.76*** | –0.59* | 0.49+ |
| (0.21) | (0.18) | (0.24) | (0.32) | (0.20) | (0.19) | (0.27) | (0.31) | (0.20) | (0.18) | (0.27) | (0.28) | |
| Self-rated health | –1.69*** | –1.16*** | 2.62*** | –1.32* | –1.47*** | –1.00** | 2.56*** | –1.44** | –1.34*** | –0.85** | 24i*** | –1.05* |
| (0.35) | (0.31) | (0.39) | (0.52) | (0.34) | (0.30) | (0.41) | (0.50) | (0.33) | (0.30) | (0.39) | (0.47) | |
| Caregiving time, h/week | –0.02 | 0.00 | 0.04+ | –0.02 | –0.01 | 0.00 | 0.03 | –0.02 | ||||
| (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.02) | (0.03) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |||||
| Caregiving task − personal hygiene (ref. no) | 1.12+ | –0.06 | –1.96* | 4 29*** | 0.99 | –0.13 | –1.61 + | 3.71*** | ||||
| (0.65) | (0.57) | (0.93) | (1.15) | (0.65) | (0.57) | (0.94) | (1.09) | |||||
| Caregiving task − dressing (ref. no) | –0.65 | –0.18 | 0.58 | –1.13 | –0.41 | –0.09 | 0.55 | –0.75 | ||||
| (0.69) | (0.63) | (0.92) | (1.21) | (0.68) | (0.63) | (0.91) | (1.14) | |||||
| Caregiving task-feeding (ref. no) | 0.79 | 0.42 | 0.43 | 2.36** | 0.38 | –0.04 | 0.93 | 1.64* | ||||
| (0.49) | (0.46) | (0.73) | (0.85) | (0.48) | (0.44) | (0.73) | (0.82) | |||||
| Caregiving task − household help (ref. no) | 0.58 | 0.92+ | –0.96 | 1.89* | 0.64 | 0.89+ | –1.25 | 1.73+ | ||||
| (0.50) | (0.49) | (0.74) | (0.95) | (0.48) | (0.48) | (0.76) | (0.93) | |||||
| Caregiving task − supervision (ref. no) | 0.63 | 0.60 | –1.46+ | 3 44*** | 0.25 | 0.52 | –1.18 | 2.77** | ||||
| (0.56) | (0.55) | (0.84) | (0.96) | (0.55) | (0.54) | (0.87) | (0.96) | |||||
| Caregiving task − transportation (ref. no) | 0.23 | 0.33 | 0.64 | 1.28 | 0.15 | 0.38 | 0.64 | 1.01 | ||||
| (0.54) | (0.52) | (0.69) | (0.83) | (0.53) | (0.51) | (0.69) | (0.80) | |||||
| Caregiving task − medication intake (ref. no) | –0.30 | 0.12 | –0.03 | 1.47 | –0.34 | 0.21 | –0.27 | 1.60+ | ||||
| (0.60) | (0.58) | (0.84) | (0.97) | (0.58) | (0.57) | (0.85) | (0.95) | |||||
| Caregiving task − help with financial matters (ref. no) | 0.47 | –0.12 | –0.55 | 2.22** | 0.66 | –0.05 | –0.61 | 2.17** | ||||
| (0.47) | (0.46) | (0.65) | (0.75) | (0.47) | (0.45) | (0.65) | (0.71) | |||||
| Perceived impairment by the pandemic in daily life | 0.41 + | 0.38 | –0.68* | –0.27 | ||||||||
| (0.23) | (0.25) | (0.33) | (0.38) | |||||||||
| Perceived impairment by the pandemic in caregiving routine | 0.78** | 0.52* | –0.60+ | 2.06*** | ||||||||
| (0.27) | (0.25) | (0.36) | (0.41) | |||||||||
| Perceived danger for the care recipient | –0.01 | 0.04 | –0.07 | –0.45 | ||||||||
| (0.23) | (0.22) | (0.29) | (0.35) | |||||||||
| Perceived danger for themselves | 0.25 | 0.51 + | 0.04 | 0.93* | ||||||||
| (0.28) | (0.28) | (0.35) | (0.44) | |||||||||
| Constant | 18.51*** | 12.10*** | 22.49*** | 16.98*** | 17.35*** | 10.33*** | 25.45*** | 7.62 | 14.25*** | 6.45* | 29.42*** | 4.44 |
| (2.66) | (2.57) | (3.69) | (4.78) | (2.89) | (2.77) | (4.09) | (4.75) | (3.04) | (2.90) | (4.43) | (4.78) | |
| Observations | 386 | 398 | 361 | 381 | 342 | 354 | 322 | 342 | 337 | 348 | 317 | 338 |
| R2 | 0.31 | 0.22 | 0.32 | 0.14 | 0.36 | 0.25 | 0.35 | 0.35 | 0.41 | 0.31 | 0.38 | 0.43 |
OLS regression analyses were conducted, unstandardized beta coefficients are given with robust standard errors in parentheses; listwise deletion was used for missing values. OLS, Ordinary Least Squares. Level of significance: ***p< 0.001, **p< 0.01, *p< 0.05, +p< 0.10.1 Monthly household net income was assessed with 13 consecutive categories (e.g., <500 EUR, 500 EUR to <1.000 EUR, 1,000 EUR to <1.500 EUR, 1.500 EUR to <2.000 EUR) and is treated as a continuous variable in the analyses of this study.