Table 1.
Summary of studies on natural language processing (NLP) and hypoglycemia.
| Author, year, country | Sample characteristics | Medical conditions | Antihyperglycemic medication | Study design |
| Nunes et al, 2016 [31], United States | N=844,683; age (years; n [%]): <30: 10,138 (1.20), 30 to 39: 38,491 (4.56), 40 to 49: 105,476 (12.49), 50 to 59: 196,494 (23.26), 60 to 69: 232,885 (27.57), >69: 261,199 (30.92); female (n [%]): 433,322 (51.30); White (n [%]): 655,474 (77.60); T2Da (n [%]): 844,683 (100); baseline measures, mean (SD): BMI (kg/m2): 31.8 (10.2), HbA1cb (%): 7.0 (1.9), blood glucose level (mg/dL): 139.0 (82) | Atrial fibrillation (n [%]): 60,773 (7.19); hypertension (n [%]): 555,482 (65.76); hyperlipidemia (n [%]): 510,944 (60.49); cerebrovascular disease (n [%]): 54,336 (6.43); chronic kidney disease: retinopathy (n [%]): 10,356 (1.23), neuropathy (n [%]): 44,352 (5.25), nephropathy (n [%]): 26,498 (3.14); ischemic heart disease (n [%]): 154,049 (18.24); congestive heart failure (n [%]): 59,438 (7.04) | Not specified | Retrospective cohort study |
| Nunes et al 2017 [29], United States | N=143,635; age (years; n [%]): <30: 1333 (0.93), 30 to 39: 5420 (3.77), 40 to 49: 15,645 (10.89), 50 to 59: 32,796 (22.83), 60 to 69: 39,852 (27.75), >69: 48,491 (33.76); female (n [%]): 69,879 (48.65); White (n [%]): 116,701 (81.25); T2D (n [%]): 143,635 (100); baseline measures (median [IQR]): BMI (kg/m2): 32.3 (28.1-37.6), HbA1c (%): 7.1 (6.5-8.1), blood glucose level (mg/dL): 146.0 (116.0-191.0) | N=143,635; cerebrovascular disease (n [%]): 11,903 (8.29); retinopathy (n [%]): 3091 (2.15); neuropathy (n [%]): 12,961 (9.02); nephropathy (n [%]): 8338 (5.80); ischemic heart disease (n [%]): 33,570 (23.37) | N=143,635; sulfonylureas (n [%]): 143,635 (100) | Retrospective cohort study |
| Loughlin et al, 2018 [32], United States | N=6024; EQWc cohort (n [%]): 2008 (33.33%); age (years): —d; female (n [%]): 1004 (50); White (n [%]): 1630 (81.17); T2D (n [%]): 2008 (100); baseline measures: —; BIe cohort (n [%]): 4016 (66.67%); age (years): —; female (n [%]): 2036 (50.70); White (n [%]): 3277 (81.60); T2D (n [%]): 4016 (100); baseline measures: — | — | N=6024; insulin (n [%]): 6024 (100) | Retrospective cohort study |
| Pettus et al, 2019 [33], United States | N=831,456; BI switchers (n=3920 to 19,256); age (years): range 58.2-60.1; female (%): range 49.8-52.0; White (%): —; T2D: (831,456, 100%); baseline measures: BMI (kg/m2): range 33.8-35.0; HbA1c (%): range 8.91-9.02; blood glucose level (mg/dL): —; smoking (%): —. Insulin naïve (n=2279 to 47,085); age (years): range 58.8-60.4; female (%): range 48.6-52.1; White (%): —; T2D (n [%]): (100); baseline measures: BMI (kg/m2): range 34.0-34.6; HbA1c (%): range 9.39-9.64; blood glucose level (mg/dL): —; smoking (%): — | BI switchers: hypertension: 63.4-73.4, hyperlipidemia: 68.1-77.8, microvascular complication: 44.7-55.7, macrovascular complication: 44.2-63.5. Insulin naïve: hypertension: 56.8-74.2; hyperlipidemia: 61.5-77.8, microvascular complication: 25.3-34.6, macrovascular complication: 32.7-63.5 | BI switchers: sulfonylureas: 24.5-28.3; any OADf: 63.6- 75.2. Insulin naïve: sulfonylureas: 47.6-56.6; | Retrospective cohort study |
| Li et al, 2019 [34], United States | N=38,780; age (years), mean: 57.0; female (n [%]): 21,716 (56); White (%): 18,226 (47); T2D (%): —; baseline measures: BMI (kg/m2), mean (SD): 35.7 (9.8); HbA1c (n [%]): ≤6.5%: 5321 (13.72), >6.5% to <7%: 1840 (4.74), ≥7% to <8%: 3155 (8.14), ≥8% to <9%: 1773 (4.57), ≥9%: 3977 (10.26), missing: 22,714 (58.57) | N=38,780; coronary artery disease (n [%]): 2021 (5.21); chronic heart failure (n [%]): 1582 (4.08); diabetic neuropathy (n [%]): 1414 (3.65) | N=38,780; long-acting insulin (LAIg): 615 (1.59); sulfonylureas: 8727 (22.50) | Retrospective cohort study |
| Misra-Hebert et al, 2020 [35], United States | N=204,517; the values provided herein are from a subsample: (n=46,302); age (years): 61.48; female (%):22,633 (48.90); White (%):34,004 (73.40); T2D (n [%]):46,302 (100); baseline measures: BMI (kg/m2): 32.2; HbA1c (%): 6.6; blood glucose level (mg/dL): — | n=46,302; cardiovascular disease (n [%]): 13,372 (28.9); congestive heart failure (n [%]): 2195 (4.7); chronic kidney disease (n [%]): 2460 (5.3) | n=46,302; insulin (n [%]): 8050 (17.4); glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist (n [%]): 1781 (3.8); dipeptidyl peptidase 4: 4437 (9.6); sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitor (n [%]): 791 (1.7); metformin: 28,851 (62.3); sulfonylureas (n [%]): 10,098 (21.8); alpha-glucosidase inhibitor (n [%]): 107 (0.2) | Retrospective cohort study |
| Uzoigw et al 2020 [36], United States | N=359,087; T2D (n [%]): 317,399 (88.39); age (years), median (IQR): 68.0 (18); female (n [%]): 154,512 (48.68); White (%):121,468 (38.27); baseline measures: BMI (kg/m2): —; HbA1c (%): —; blood glucose level (mg/dL): —; smoking (n [%]):106,760 (33.63). T1Dh: (n [%]): 41,688 (11.61); age (years): median (IQR) 55.0 (30); female (n [%]): 21,034 (50.46); White (n [%]): 16,072 (38.55); baseline measures: BMI (kg/m2): —; HbA1c (%): —; blood glucose level (mg/dL): —; smoking (n [%]): 9174 (22) | T2D: N=317,399; hypertension (n [%]): 257,093 (81); hyperlipidemia (n [%]): 193,616 (61); cardiovascular disease (n [%]): 158,699 (50). T1D: N=41,688; high blood sugar level or diabetic ketoacidosis (n [%]): 14,067 (33.74); cancer (n [%]): 6752 (16.20); stroke (n [%]): 7377 (17.70); substance use or abuse (n [%]): 4917 (11.79) | T2D: N=317,399; insulin (n [%]): 174,569 (55); sulfonylureas (n [%]): 55,710 (17.55); metformin (n [%]): 114,263(36). T1D: N=41,688; insulin (n [%]): 37,279 (89.42); sulfonylureas (n [%]): 1846 (4.43); metformin (n [%]): 5059 (12.14) | Retrospective cohort study |
| Ganz et al 2014 [37], United States | N=7235; HbA1c (%): —; blood glucose level (mg/dL): —; smoking (%): —; T2D (n [%]): 7235 (100); age (years), mean (SD): 60.82 (11.65); female (n [%]): 3668 (50.70); White (n [%]): 4576 (63.25); baseline measures: BMI (kg/m2): —; HbA1c (%): —; blood glucose level (mg/dL): —; smoking (%): — | T2D (n [%]): 7235 (100) | Insulin: glargine (%): 77.24; neutral protamine Hagedorn insulin (%): 5.86; detemir (%): 16.90. Sulfonylureas (%): 38.06; metformin (%): 36.66; other OADs (%): 25.82 | Retrospective cohort study |
aT2D: type 2 diabetes.
bHbA1c: glycated hemoglobin.
cEQW: exenatide once weekly.
dNot available.
eBI: basal insulin.
fOAD: oral antidiabetic drug.
gLAI: long-acting insulin.
hT1D: type 1 diabetes.