TABLE 1.
Summary of TRE interventions in humans, divided into early (eating window finished before/by 17:00 h), mid (delayed breakfast and end of eating window by 19:00 h), or late (delayed start of eating window to after 12:00 h), and studies whereby the TRE window was self-selected1
| Study (reference) | Participants (number, sex, age, BMI) | Design | Intervention | Major findings | Diet recording methodology and related outcomes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| “Early” TRE (eating window finishes before/by 17:00 h) | |||||
| Hutchison et al. 2019 (24) | 15, M 55 y, 34 kg/m2 | 1 wk RXT(2-wk w/o) | eTRE: 9 h, 08:00–17:00 h vs. dTRE: 9 h, 12:00–21:00 h | ↓ Glucose AUC in eTRE and dTRE↓ Fasting glucose by CGM (eTRE) | No diet recording or diet analysis; no data on timing of when participants ate meals |
| Jamshed et al. 2019 (21)and Ravussin et al.2019 (22)2 | 11, M + F32 y, 30 kg/m2 | 4 d RXT(3.5–5-wk w/o) | TRE: 8 h, 08:00–14:00 h vs. Control 12 h, 08:00–20:00 h | ↓ 24-h glucose and glycemic variability via CGM | Meals provided with matched energy at each meal (33% EI), same macronutrients (50% CHO, 30% fat, 15% protein) across day; same as Sutton et al. (20) |
| Sutton et al. 2019 (20)2 | 8, M56 y, 32 kg/m2, prediabetes | 5 wk RXT(∼7-wk w/o) | TRE: 8 h, 08:00–14:00 hvs. Control 12 h, 08:00–20:00 h | ↑ Insulin sensitivity↔ Body weight | Meals provided with matched energy at each meal (33% EI), same macronutrients (50% CHO, 30% fat, 15% protein) across day; same as Jamshed/Ravussin et al. (21, 22) |
| Zeb et al. 2020 (33) | 56, Myoung (no age) | 25 d Pre-post | TRE: 8 h, 07:30–15:30 h | ↓ CHO, TGs, AST, ALT, and albumin↑ HDL | No diet recording or diet analysis; no data on timing of when participants ate meals |
| “Mid” TRE (delayed breakfast and early dinner) | |||||
| Gabel et al. 2018 (32) andGabel et al. 2020 (69) | 23, M + F49 y, 34.5 kg/m2 | 12 wk Pre-post | TRE: 8 h, 10:00–18:00 h vs. historical control | ↔ Body weight, fat/lean mass, fasting glucose↓ SBP | 7-d food record at baseline and at week 12; decreased energy intake (∼1420 kJ/d, −20%), NC in macronutrient intake; self-reported timing of intake |
| Martens et al. 2020 (50) | 22, M + F67 y, 25 kg/m2 | 6 wk RXT(2-wk w/o) | TRE: 8 h, starting between 10:00 and 11:00 h | ↔ Vascular endothelial function, body weight, fat/lean mass, BP↓ Hunger | Energy intake (via 24-h diet record ASA24, once per week) was unchanged, diet quality (through HEI) unchanged; self-reported timing of intake |
| Parr et al. 2020 (43) | 19, M + F50 y, 34 kg/m2, type 2 diabetes | 4 wk (+2 wk baseline) Pre-post | TRE: 9 h, 10:00–19:00 h | ↔ Body weight, fat/lean mass, HbA1c, fasting glucose | Food records throughout entire 2-wk baseline and 4-wk study; N/C to dietary intake with TRE (vs. baseline); photos to capture dietary timing; reduced EI on adherent TRE days vs. nonadherent (reduced CHO, alcohol) |
| Parr et al. 2020 (23)2 | 11, M38 y, 32 kg/m2 | 5 dRXT (2-wk w/o) | TRE: 8 h, 10:00–18:00 h vs. Control: 15 h, 07:00 h–22:00 h | ↔ 24-h glucose concentrations or AUC (CGM), insulin↓ Nocturnal glucose concentrations | Meals provided; 25:30:45% EI; same macronutrients at each meal (30% CHO, 50% fat, 20% protein); self-reported timing of intake at structured times |
| Peeke et al. 2021 (19)3 | 60, M + F44 y, 38 kg/m2 | 8 wkRCT | TRE: 10 h (self-selected from 07:00–17:00 h to 10:00–20:00 h) vs. Control 12 h | ↓ Body weight (−10.7 kg) in TRE vs. CON (−8.9 kg), fasting glucose (when FBG >5.5 mmol/L) | Controlled meals/energy intake (reduced energy intake by 500–100 kJ/d) via Jenny Craig Rapid Results Program and purchasing 8 wk of food; no reporting of timing of intake |
| “Late” TRE (after 12:00 h start) | |||||
| Cienfuegos et al. 2020 (16)and Cienfuegos et al.2021 (70) | 58, M + F47 y, 36 kg/m2 | 8 wkRCT | TRE: 4 h (from 15:00 h) and 6 h (from 13:00 h) vs. Control, ad libitum | ↓ Body weight (3.9 and 3.4%) in TRE groups vs. Control (0.1%)↔ Fasting glucose, HbA1c↔ Body weight, pre- vs. postmenopausal women | 7-d food record at baseline and week 8; household measures and self-reported times.Decreased EI in both groups (∼−2090 kJ/d) compared with Control (∼−420 kJ/d); N/C to sugar, saturated fat, cholesterol, fiber, or sodium intakes |
| Isenmann et al. 2021 (63)4 | 35, M + F27 y, 26 kg/m2 | 14 wk (+2 wk baseline)RCT | TRE: 8 h, 12:00–20:00 h)vs. MBD | ↓ Body weight (∼5%) in both TRE and MBD groups↓ Body fat↔ Lean mass | Food records throughout entire 2-wk baseline (phase 1) and 8-wk phase 2, encouraged for 6-wk phase 3; N/C to dietary intake with TRE or MBD (vs. baseline) |
| Kotarsky et al. 2021 (60)4 | 21, M + F44 y, 30 kg/m2 | 8 wkRCT | TRE: 8 h, 12:00–20:00 h)vs. Control, normal diet pattern | ↓ Body weight in TRE (3.3%) vs. Control (0.2%) | 3-d diet records collected at weeks 1, 4, and 7; participants were excluded after more than 1 noncompliant (to the timing of eating) day; decreased EI in both groups (∼1250 kJ/d) due to decreased CHO intake |
| Lowe et al. 2020 (34) | 105 M + F (online), including 46 (in person)46 y, 31 kg/m2 | 12 wk RCT | TRE: 8 h, 12:00–20:00 h vs. CMT (06:00–10:00 h breakfast, 11:00–15:00 h lunch, 17:00–22:00 h dinner) | ↔ Body weight (−0.9 vs. CMT: −0.6 kg), ↓ appendicular lean mass index in TRE vs. CMT | No diet recording or diet analysis; no data on timing of when participants ate meals |
| Moro et al. 2016 (59)4 | 34, M 29 y, 27 kg/m2 | 8 wk RCT | TRE: 8 h, 13:00–20:00 h vs. Control: 12 h, 08:00–20:00 h | ↓ Fat mass (−16%) vs. Control (−2%), fasting glucose, fasting insulin, ↔ lean mass | Participants were instructed to consume 3 meals, based on their baseline (7-d recording) dietary intake; TRE was 40%, 25%, and 35% EI at the 3 meals (13:00, 16:00, and 20:00) vs. Control of 25% at 08:00, 40% at 13:00 and 35% at 20:00; ND between groups for EI or macronutrient intake |
| Schroder et al. 2021 (35) | 32, F39 y, 33 kg/m2 | 3 mo Non-RCT | TRE: 8 h, 12:00–20:00 h vs. Control: no change to habitual intake/patterns | ↓ Body weight (−3.4 kg) vs. Control (+1.3 kg) | No diet recording or diet analysis; no data on timing of when participants ate meals |
| Smith et al. 2017 (36) | 20, F21 y, ∼65 kg (no BMI data) | 4 wk Pre-post | TRE: 8 h, 12:00–20:00 h | ↓ Body weight (0.6 kg) | Self-reported adherence to the diet prescription but no analysis of diet energy intake or data on the timing of when participants ate meals |
| Stote et al. 2007 (31)2 | 15, M + F45 y, 23 kg/m2 | 8 wk RXT (11-wk w/o) | TRE: 4 h, 17:00–21:00 h vs. Control (3 meals/d) | ↓ Body weight (1.4 kg), ↑ blood pressure vs. Control | Meals provided (∼9890 kJ/d TRE and 10,160 kJ/d in Control), same macronutrient intake (50% CHO, 35% fat, 15% protein) |
| Tinsley et al. 2017 (61)4 | 18 MNormal weight | 8 wk RCT | TRE: 4 h (between 16:00 and 00:00 h) for 4 d/wk vs. Control | ↔ Body weight, fat mass | −2720 kJ/d energy reduction each day of TRE (nontraining days) |
| Tinsley et al. 2019 (62)4 | 40 F22 y, 23 kg/m2 | 8 wk RCT | TRE: 8 h, 12:00–20:00 h vs. Control (13 h) | ↑ Body weight (both groups), ↓ fat mass (∼4%) TRE vs. CON, ↑ muscle strength and endurance (both groups) | Weighed diet records on selected weekday and weekend days during pre- and 2 separate weeks during intervention period; increased EI in all groups (∼84–840 kJ/d) |
| Participant choice TRE (no specified “window”) | |||||
| Anton et al. 2019 (37) | 10, M + F77 y, 34 kg/m2 | 4 wkPre-post | TRE: 8 h, self-selected | ↓ Body fat (−0.6 kg, −0.7%) | Food diaries collected for adherence (84%, in weeks 2–4); no analysis of dietary intake |
| Antoni et al. 2018 (17) | 13, F46 y, 29 kg/m2 | 10 wkPre-post | TRE: 90 min earlier dinner and 90 min later breakfast, self-selected | ↔ Body weight (−0.7 vs. −0.5 kg), ↓ body fat percentage | Validated food diaries used for the entire intervention period; diet timing via self-report in food diaries; decreased EI by ∼2930 kJ/d |
| Cai et al. 2019 (41) | 271, M + F34 y, 26 kg/m2 NAFLD | 12 wkRCT | TRE: 8 h, self-selected, vs. ADF vs. Control | ↓ Body weight (−3.6 kg) in TRE (and −4.5 kg in ADF) vs. Control | All groups were prescribed energy-restricted diet intake, with the TRE group being provided 1 meal in the 8-h period; no reporting of baseline energy intake, self-reported intake during intervention (weeks 4 and 12), with eating times |
| Chow et al. 2020 (18) | 20, M + F45 y, 34 kg/m2 | 12 wk Pre-post | TRE: 8 h, self-selected (achieved 10 h) vs. Control 15 h | ↓ Body weight (3.7% ∼3.6 kg) in TRE vs. Control | Energy intake logged using MCC app to obtain meal timing; number of eating occasions reported, as a surrogate measure of diet intake; TRE eating window selected ∼10:40–18:40 h with 55% adherence |
| Gill and Panda, 2015 (14) | 8, M + F27 y, 33 kg/m2 | 16 wkPre-post | TRE: 10 h, self-selected | ↓ Body weight (−3.3 kg) | Custom mobile app (MCC) to take photos of food for entire period; annotated and analyzed using FDDNS or CalorieKing. EI decreased by 20.26% (−4.92 to 35.6% 95% CI) |
| Kesztyüs et al. 2019 (38) | 40, M + F49 y, 31 kg/m2 | 12 wkPre-post | TRE: 8 h, self-selected | ↓ Body weight (−1.7 kg), ↓ waist circumference↓ HbA1c | Self-reported intake of main diet components rated on 6-point Likert scale (never–several times a day) at baseline and postintervention; no diet intake reporting or analysis; self-reported timing of eating (time of first and last meal) using a diary |
| Kesztyüs et al. 2021 (39) | 63, M + F 48 y, 26 kg/m2 | 12 wkPre-post | TRE: 8–9 h, self-selected | ↓ Body weight (−1.3 kg), ↓ waist circumference (−1.7 cm), ↑ HRQoL | Self-reported adherence (∼72%) via time of first and last meal; no diet intake reporting or analysis |
| LeCheminant et al. 2013 (15) | 27, M21 y, 24 kg/m2 | 2 wkRXT(1-wk w/o) | TRE: 06:00–19:00 h vs. ad libitum | ↓ Body weight (−0.4 kg) vs. ad libitum (+0.6 kg) | 3-d diet recall (2 weekdays, 1 weekend) during each week using 24-h multi-pass recallReduced EI in TRE vs. ad libitum, no differences in macronutrient intake; self-reported timing of intake |
| McAllister et al. 2020 (71) | 22, M22 y, 28 kg/m2 | 4 wkRCT | TRE: 8 h, self-selectedvs. either ad libitum or prescribed isoenergetic | ↔ Body weight↓ Body fat, ↓ BP | Self-reported time of first and last meal, diet intake logged using MyFitnessPal; trend (P = 0.054) for higher diet intake in the ad libitum TRE group compared with isoenergetic |
| Phillips et al. 2021 (49) | 213 M + F (observation), 40 y, 25 kg/m254, M + F (RCT)43 y, ∼28 kg/m2 | 1-mo observation6-moRCT | TRE: 12 h, self-selected vs. SDA (10-min nutrition counseling) | ↓ Body weight (TRE: 1.6% vs. SDA: 1.1%) | Diet intake logged using MCC app (for timing), text coded for dietary quality analysis using NOVA (unprocessed to processed) categories; no analysis of energy intake |
| Pureza et al. 2020 (72) | 58, F31 y, 33 kg/m2 | 3 wkPre-post | TRE: 12 h, self-selected vs. unrestricted (Control) | ↓ Body weight (−1 kg to 2 kg in both groups), ↓ body fat in TRE | No measurement of diet timing but energy reduction (prescribed) was similar in both groups (−2680 kJ/d) |
| Wilkinson et al. 2020 (40) | 19, M + F59 y, 33 kg/m2MetS | 12 wkPre-post | TRE: 10 h, self-selected | ↓ Body weight [−3 kg (−3%)], fat mass, BP↔ Fasting glucose, insulin, HbA1c | Diet intake logged using MCC app (for timing), estimated ∼9% (840 kJ/d) energy reduction but no analysis of macronutrient intake |
1
Arrows indicate significant reductions (↓) or no significant changes (↔). ADF, alternate-day fasting; ALT, alanine transaminase; ASA24, Automated Self-Administered 24-hour dietary assessment tool; AST, aspartate aminotransferase; BP, blood pressure; CGM, continuous glucose monitor; CHO, carbohydrate; CMT, consistent meal timing; dTRE, delayed time-restricted eating; EI, energy intake; eTRE, early time-restricted eating; FBG, fasting blood glucose; FDDNS, Food and Nutrient Database for Dietary Studies; HbA1c, glycated hemoglobin; HEI, Healthy Eating Index; HRQoL, health-related quality of life; MBD, macronutrient-based diet; MCC, MyCircadianClock; MetS, metabolic syndrome; NAFLD, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease; N/C, no change; ND, no difference; RCT, randomized controlled trial; RXT, randomized crossover trial; SBP, systolic blood pressure; SDA, standard dietary advice; TG, triglyceride; TRE, time-restricted eating; w/o, washout.
2
Provided meals (isoenergetic).
3
Prescribed diet (hypoenergetic).
4
Exercise protocol with TRE/Control.