Table 1.
Natural compounds and their actions on SARS-CoV-2.
| Origin | Extracts or derivates | Mechanism of action |
|---|---|---|
| Ammoides verticillata | c-Terpinene, isothymol, limonene, P-cymene, thymol | Inhibition of ACE-2 receptor for SARS-CoV-2 [64] |
| Curcuma longa | Curcumin | Act against anti-inflammatory diseases, lung diseases, metabolic diseases, and liver, neurological, cardiovascular diseases, and tumors [84]Interaction with several viral targets thereby triggering cell signaling pathways, such as apoptosis and inflammation: DNApol thioredoxin reductase, focal adhesion kinase, protein kinase, tubulin, LOX [84]Limitation of viral multiplication (interfering in viral replication cycle, viral genome replication, viral attachment) [85], [86], [87], [88], [89]Modification of the viral surface protein, block of viral entry and viral budding [84]Action on membrane proteins by modulation of the host lipid bilayer structure [107]Bind to SARS-CoV-2 protease, spike glycoprotein-RBD [35]Inhibition of ACE2 suppressing SARS-CoV-2 entry to the cell [35]Inhibition of COVID-19 Mpro (viral main protease that impede immune response) [76]Scavenge of several small oxidative molecules [99]Up-regulation of glutathione (GSH) expression and inhibition of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation [100]Antithrombotic properties useful [101] |
| Marine algal | Sulfated polysaccharides | Rich source of many antioxydant agents promising for the development of drugs for the prevention and treatment of various chronic and acute human disease [97] |
| Marine algal | Polyphenolic compounds (flavonoids, cinnamic acid, benzoic acid, gallic acid, quercetin) | High antioxidant activity and potential antiviral molecules [96] |
| Brown macroalgae or diatoms | Phlorotannins | Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties [96] |
| Tannins | Proanthocyanidins (syn. condensed tannins), hydrolysable tannins (syn. gallotannins), Lamiaceae tannins (depsides) | Inhibition of the functionality of viral envelope proteins [44]Interaction with salivary proteins and surface proteins of epithelial cells with inhibition of an incoming virus from adhering to host cells [83] |
| Natural oil | Laurel oil | Antiviral potential against enveloped viruses [81], [82]In vitro activity of laurel oil against SARS-CoV [44] with inhibition of viral replication [81] |
| Salvia officinalis L. | Sage oils/leaves | Topical application as gargle solutions [44] |
| Phytoestrogens from Cicer arietinum | Daidzein, genistein, formononetin, biochanin A | Binding to HSPA5 with the inhibition of coronavirus S protein interaction [68] |
| Palm oil | Palmitic acid | |
| Vegetable oils like canola, soybean, flaxseed/linseed, olive, some nuts | Linolenic acid | |
| Coffee | Chlorogenic acid | |
| Extravirgin olive oil | Hydroxytyrosol | |
| Berries, herbs, mushrooms, coffee beans | Caffeic acid | |
| Honeybee hive propolis | Caffeic acid phenethyl ester | |
| Fungi, peanuts, tomatoes, garlic | Cis-p-coumaric acid | |
| Cinnamomum verum | Cinnamaldehyde | |
| Seeds of Nigella sativa | Thymoquinone | |
| Allium sativum L. or garlic | Garlic essential oil | Strong interaction with ACE2 protein [63]Good inhibition of PDB6LU7 protein (Mpro) [63] |
| Crocus sativus L. | Crocin | Inhibitor of SARS-CoV-2 Mpro[70] |
| Nerium oleander | Digitoxigenin | |
| Lauris nobilis L. | β-Eudesmol | |
| Psorothamnus arborescens | 5,7,3',4'-Tetrahydroxy-2'-(3,3-dimethylallyl) isoflavone | Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro activity and replication [74] |
| Mymirica cerifera | Myricitrin | |
| Hyptis atrorubens Poit | Methyl rosmarinate | |
| Phaseolus vulgaris | 3,5,7,30,40,50-Hexahydroxy flavanone-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside | |
| Phyllanthus emblica | (2S)-eriodictyol 7-O-(600-ogalloyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside | |
| Fraxinus sieboldiana | Calceolarioside B | Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro activity and replication [74] |
| Camellia sinensis | Myricetin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside | |
| Camellia Sinensin | Theaflavin | Binding to RdRp [78]Anti-IL-6 action [94] |
| Glycyrrhiza uralensis | Licoleafol | Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro activity and replication [74] |
| Amaranthus tricolor | Amaranthin | |
| Polygonum cuspidatum, grapes, wine | Resveratrol | Upregolation of circulating ACE2 with reductive effect on SARS-CoV-2 severity [66]Reduction of IL-6 production [66] |
| Pligonum cuspidatum | Polydatin | Antioxidant properties [95] |
| Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi | Baicalin | ACE2 inhibition [65] |
| Erigeron breviscapus (Vant.) Hand Mazz | Scutellarin | Reduction the ACE expression and activity in brain tissue [65] |
| Citrus auarantium, Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium | Hesperitin | Inhibition of cleavage of the 3CLpro[65] |
| Soybean | Nicotiamine | Potent inhibitor of ACE2 [65] |
| Herb licorice root (Glycyrrhiza radix) | Glycyrrhizin | Inhibition of viral adsorption and penetration (blocking ACE2 receptor) [65] |
| Citrus Sp. | Tangeretin, hesperidin, nobiletin, naringenin | Inhibition of RBD-S, PD-ACE2, SARS-CoV-2 Main protease [35] |
| Caesalpinia sappan | Brazilein, brazilin | |
| Alpinia galanga | Galangin | |
| Betula pubescens | Betulinic | Inhibition of replication and 3CLpro[69] |
| Rauwolfia canescens | Desmethoxyreserpine | |
| Linum usitatissium | Lignan | |
| Metasequoia glyptostroboides | Sugiol | |
| Tinospora cordifolia | Coumaroyltyramine | Inhibition of PLpro and 3CLpro[69] |
| Salvia miotiorrhiza Bunge | Cryptotanshinone | |
| Pteridophyta | Kaempferol | |
| Piper caninum Blume | N-cis-feruloyltyramine | |
| Apples, barks, berries, brassica vegetables, capers, flowers, Ginkgo biloba, grapes, Hypericum perforatum, leaves, nuts, onions, red onions, Sambucus canadensis, seeds, shallots, tea, tomatoes | Quercetin | |
| Salvia miltiorrhiza | Tanshinone IIa | |
| Pinus sylvestris, Cedrus deodara, Larix decidua, Abies grandis, Cupressus sempervirens | Dihomo-c-linolenic | Inhibition of 3CLpro[69] |
| Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge | Dihydrotanshinone | Inhibition of entry and spike protein [69] |
| Piper nigru | Moupinamide | Inhibition of PLpro[69] |
| Nigella sativa | DTQ, TQ, Thymol, THQ, P-cymene, 4-terpineol,T-anethole | ACE2 inhibition [67] |
| Clerodendrum spp. | Taraxerol, friedelin, stigmasterol | Inhibition of main protease enzyme Mpro, spike protein, and RdRp [77] |