Table 5.

The pharmacology of major alkaloids used for cancer treatment, their mode of action, oncological applications and side effects

Type of alkaloid		Plant part	Pharmacological mechanisms	Therapeutic indications	Side effects	Refs.
Vinblastine	Known as Vincaleukoblastine hygroscopic crystalline compound water/methanol miscible white/slightly yellowish colour	Leaf stem root	Clings to tubulin prevents microtubules from developing anti-mitotic	Breast cancer Lung cancer Head and neck cancer Hodgkin’s lymphoma Testicular cancer	↓Bone marrow ↑Gastrointestinal toxicity Potent vesicant Extravasation injury	[47]
Vincristine	Known as Leucocristine colourless fluid in most pharmaceutical formulations	Leaf stem root	Binds to tubulin dimer prevents microtubule structures from forming mitotic inhibitor anti-mitotic	Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma lymphoblastic leukemia nephroblastoma	Peripheral neuropathy hyponatremia, constipation paralysis, spinal nerve demyelination, lung spasm	[48, 49]
Vindesine	Catharanthus alkaloid, brand names: Eldisine, Fildesin accessible as a dissolved powder, it has the appearance of a whitish fluid	Leaf stem root	Anti-mitotic	Melanoma Lung cancers Uterine malignancies	Spinal nerve demyelination, hyponatremia, constipation, hair loss, nerve demyelination, breathing problems, lung spasm	[49, 50]
Vinorelbine	It is the first 5ʹNOR derived semi-synthetic Catharanthus alkaloid; from Catharanthus alkaloids vindoline and catharanthine using Polonovski fragmentation method	Leaf stem root	Anti-mitotic	Breast cancer Non-small cell lung cancer	Inflammation of the veins, constipation, poor resistance to infection, bleeding, anaemia, nausea, diarrhoea, numbness or tingling in hands or feet	[51]
Vinflunine	Second-generation anticancer drug	Leaf stem root	↓ Transition from metaphase to anaphase, preventing cancer cells from entering mitosis ↑ apoptosis	Transitional cell carcinoma breast cancer	Hair loss Weariness Overall sensation of weakness	[52]