Table 1.

Research gaps

• More studies should focus on preschool children’s behaviors (as a fundamental phase for long term obesity management), including the family context/situation, with longer follow-up periods to evaluate prospectively the impact of behavioral phenotypes and interventions that have sustained effects

• As “a shift in focus away from individual behaviors toward the wider environment” has recently been required [131•], targeting the environment children grow up and thus providing the prerequisites for them to develop optimal movement behaviors is warranted

• There is still insufficient evidence available to fully describe the dose–response relationships (as the threshold values) between PA and obesity-related health outcomes, and whether the associations vary by the “type” (i.e., aerobic vs. strength exercise) or the “domain” (active transport such as walking and cycling vs. physical education vs. sports/recreation) of PA

• More trials are needed to investigate the timing of exercise (proximity to meals and the effect of morning vs. afternoon exercises) in children and adolescents, as an approach to moderate energy balance. These would be especially relevant in free-living, school-based settings to optimize public health strategies

• As studies present a high level of methodological heterogeneity, more consistent and standardized methods are needed when investigating PA (timing, intensity, duration, modality), energy and macronutrient intakes (objective measurements), and food preference in children with obesity