1 |
Respiratory system |
Respiratory depression, obstructive and central sleep apnea, ataxic breathing, respiratory arrest, and death |
2 |
Central nervous system |
Increased risk of falls, cognitive impairment, myoclonus, delirium, depression, somnolence, and sleep disorders |
3 |
Cardiovascular system |
Orthostatic hypotension, bradycardia, vasodilation, and an increased risk of cardiovascular events, e.g., myocardial infarction |
4 |
Gastrointestinal system |
Constipation, nausea and vomiting, gastric reflux, delayed gastric emptying, abdominal cramping, and distension |
5 |
Immune system |
Decreased wound healing, pruritus, altered cytokine production, increased histamine release, inhibition of macrophage, neutrophil, and natural killer cell activity and recruitment, increased HIV replication, and cancer progression |
6 |
Endocrine system |
Opioid-induced endocrinopathy (usually only with high opioid doses, long-term), resulting in decreased libido, testicular atrophy, early menopause, and sexual dysfunction |