Table 1.
The role of galectin in various tumors.
| Galectin | Cancer type | Function and clinical significance | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Galectin-1 | |||
| Acute myelogenous leukemia | Differentiation, immunosuppression and chemotherapy resistance | (6) | |
| Acute lymphoblastic leukemia | Migration, anti-cytotoxic effect and tumor burden | (7) | |
| B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia | Aggregation, adhesion, migration, survival, anti-chemotherapy-induced apoptosis and inhibition of macrophage-mediated cell killing | (8) | |
| Leukemic cutaneous T-cell lymphoma | Lower anti-tumor response and highly opportunistic infections | (9) | |
| Mixed lineage leukemia -rearranged B-lymphoblastic leukemias | Highly sensitive and specific reproducible marker | (10) | |
| Chronic myelogenous leukemia | Proliferation, apoptosis, differentiation, migration, resistance and long-term retention | (6, 11) | |
| Chronic lymphocytic leukemia | Anti-apoptosis, stimulation of cloning, activation of cancer cells, immunosuppression, progression and poor prognosis | (11–13) | |
| Anaplastic large cell lymphoma | Death sensitivity | (6) | |
| Classic Hodgkin’s lymphoma | Invasion, immune escape and diagnostic marker | (6) | |
| Hodgkin’s lymphoma | Predictive marker of disease progression | (12) | |
| Relapsed/Refractory lymphoma | Predictive biomarker | (6) | |
| Multiple myeloma | Bone marrow infiltration, proliferation, survival, angiogenesis | (6, 14) | |
| Head and neck tumors | Immune escape | (15) | |
| Oral squamous cell carcinoma | Migration and invasion | (16) | |
| Tongue squamous cell carcinoma | Metastasis, progression, clinical stage and progression | (17) | |
| Squamous cell carcinoma of the larynx and sublarynx | Rapid relapse and low survival rate, tumor development, prognosis and progression | (18) | |
| Gingival quamous cell carcinoma | Depth of invasion and lymph node metastasis | (19) | |
| Melanoma | Migration, angiogenesis and immune escape | (19) | |
| Thyroid cancer | Tumor cell proliferation | (20) | |
| Breast cancer | Angiogenesis, metastasis and infiltration | (20) | |
| Lung cancer | Migration, progression, angiogenesis, disease progression, chemotherapy resistance | (20) | |
| Liver cancer | Tumor cell growth, metastasis, invasion and cell adhesion, poor prognosis | (21) | |
| Stomach cancer | Proliferation, migration and angiogenesis | (20) | |
| Pancreatic cancer | Proliferation, invasion, angiogenesis, metastasis and immune escape | (20) | |
| Colorectal cancer | Proliferation, migration, invasion and progression | (20, 22) | |
| Cervical cancer | Migration and invasiveness | (22, 23) | |
| Ovarian cancer | Migration and invasiveness | (20) | |
| Endometrial cancer | Poor prognosis | (24) | |
| Bladder cancer | Disease progression | (25) | |
| Kidney cancer | Migration | (26) | |
| Prostate cancer | Migration, invasiveness and poor prognosis | (27) | |
| Neuroblastoma | Proliferation, migration and infiltration | (20) | |
| Galectin-2 | |||
| Breast cancer | Adhesion to vascular endothelium | (28) | |
| Stomach cancer | Metastasis | (29) | |
| Colorectal cancer | Adhesion to vascular endothelium | (28, 29) | |
| Bladder cancer | Tumor invasion | (25) | |
| Galectin-3 | |||
| Acute leukemia | chemotherapy resistance | (30) | |
| Acute myelogenous leukemia | Anti-apoptosis, adhesion, survival, proliferation, recurrence, independent poor prognostic factors and chemotherapy resistance | (7) | |
| Acute promyelocytic leukemia | High recurrence and mortality | (7) | |
| Chronic myelogenous leukemia | Proliferation, chemotherapy resistance and BM deposition | (31) | |
| B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia | Migration, adhesion, chemotherapy resistance and inhibition of anti-leukemia response | (32) | |
| Chronic lymphocytic leukemia | Prognostic marker and effects on disease progression are contradictory | (33) | |
| Anaplastic large cell lymphoma | Biomarker | (34) | |
| Primary central nervous system lymphoma / Adult T-cell leukemia-lymphoma | Poor prognosis | (35, 36) | |
| Diffuse large B cell lymphoma | Metastasis, adhesion, anti-apoptosis and distinguishing from Follicular lymphoma | (6) | |
| Multiple myeloma | Metastasis, growth, migration, angiogenesis, adhesion, anti-apoptosis and chemotherapy resistance | (6, 14) | |
| Oral squamous cell carcinoma | Proliferation, migration and angiogenesis | (37) | |
| Tongue squamous cell carcinoma | Differentiation, metastasis and progression | (17) | |
| Melanoma | Prognosis and diagnosis | (37) | |
| Thyroid cancer | Angiogenesis Prognosis |
(37, 38) | |
| Breast cancer | Metastasis, invasion, angiogenesis, recurrence and chemotherapy resistance | (37, 39) | |
| Lung cancer | Prognosis and recurrence | (40) | |
| Esophageal cancer | Angiogenesis, proliferation, migration and invasion | (38, 41) | |
| Liver cancer | Tissue differentiation, metastasis, invasion, progression and prognosis | (21) | |
| Stomach cancer | Metastasis, invasion and prognosis | (37, 42) | |
| Pancreatic cancer | Metastasis, invasion and prognosis | (37) | |
| Colorectal cancer | Proliferation, prognosis and chemotherapy resistance | (37, 42) | |
| Cervical cancer | Prognosis | (43) | |
| Ovarian cancer | Proliferation, migration, invasion, prognosis, chemotherapy resistance and survival | (44) | |
| Endometrial cancer | Migration | (45) | |
| Bladder cancer | Apoptosis, progression, invasion and chemotherapy resistance | (25) | |
| Kidney cancer | Classification and prognosis | (26) | |
| Prostate cancer | Migration, progression and early metastasis | (46) | |
| Neuroblastoma | Proliferation, migration and infiltration | (20) | |
| Galectin-4 | |||
| Tongue squamous cell carcinoma | Differentiation | (17) | |
| Lung cancer | Growth, invasion, tumor size and lymph node status | (47) | |
| Liver cancer | Growth, recurrence, metastasis, prognosis and survival | (48) | |
| Pancreatic cancer | Recurrence, prognosis, death | (49) | |
| Colorectal cancer | Growth and aggressiveness | (50, 51) | |
| Bladder cancer | Growth and metastasis | (52) | |
| Prostate cancer | Metastasis and progression | (53) | |
| Galectin-7 | |||
| Invasive mouse lymphoma model | Metastasis and invasion | (54, 55) | |
| Head and neck tumors | The degree of keratinization and differentiation | (56, 57) | |
| Oral squamous cell carcinoma | Malignancy, grade, migration and invasion | (58) | |
| Tongue squamous cell carcinoma | Relapse and prognosis | (17) | |
| Hypopharyngeal cancer | Progression | (59) | |
| Laryngeal cquamous cell carcinoma | Progression | (59) | |
| Melanoma | Apoptosis | (57) | |
| Thyroid cancer | Distinguish between benign and malignant | (57) | |
| Breast cancer | Metastasis, invasiveness, progression, chemotherapy resistance and apoptosis |
(57) | |
| Esophageal cancer | Prognosis | (60) | |
| Stomach cancer | Growth and angiogenesis | (57) | |
| Colorectal cancer | Growth and angiogenesis | (57) | |
| Cervical cancer | Cell growth and angiogenesis | (61) | |
| Ovarian cancer | Proliferation, invasion, immunosuppression and prognosis | (57) | |
| Kidney cancer | Prognosis | (26, 62) | |
| Bladder cancer | Growth, angiogenesis and chemotherapy sensitivity | (57, 63) | |
| Prostate cancer | Cell growth and angiogenesis | (62) | |
| Neuroblastoma | Chemotherapy sensitivity | (64) | |
| Galectin-8 | |||
| Multiple myeloma | Adhesion and poor prognosis | (14) | |
| Head and neck cancer | Malignant transformation | (65) | |
| Thyroid cancer | Marker of Thyroid cancer | (66) | |
| Breast cancer | Cell adhesion,migration and tumorigenesis | (67) | |
| Lung cancer | Metastasis, cell adhesion and the degree of malignancy | (66, 67) | |
| Stomach cancer | Recurrence, survival and prognosis | (68) | |
| Colon cancer | Metastasis and growth cell adhesion | (67, 69) | |
| Cervical cancer | Cell adhesion | (67) | |
| Ovarian cancer | Prognosis | (70) | |
| Kidney cancer | Cancer cell necrosis and inflammation | (26) | |
| Bladder cancer | Grade and stage, relapse and prognosis | (71) | |
| Prostate cancer | Migration | (72) | |
| Neuroblastoma | Proliferation, migration and infiltration | (73) | |
| Galectin-9 | |||
| Acute myelogenous leukemia | Growth, progression, immunosuppression, impaired anti-tumor response, support for leukemia stem cells and poor prognosis | (6, 74, 75) | |
| Chronic myelogenous leukemia | Apoptosis | (76) | |
| Multidimensional scaling | Progress, low survival rate and poor prognosis | (7) | |
| Adult T-cell leukemia/ Adult T-Cell Leukemia-Lymphoma | Increases tumor burden and reflects immune-related adverse reactions of biological agents | (7, 77) | |
| Chronic lymphocytic leukemia | Proliferation, prognosis, immune escape | (7) | |
| Cutaneous T cell lymphoma | Lower anti-tumor response and highly opportunistic infections | (6) | |
| Multiple myeloma | Apoptosis, prognosis, growth inhibitory, anti-proliferation and anti-myeloma activity | (6, 78) | |
| Melanoma | Survival and chemotherapy sensitivity | (79) | |
| Breast cancer | Invasiveness, metastasis and survival | (80) | |
| Liver cancer | Cell adhesion, invasion, metastasis, apoptosis, immunosuppression, progression, prognosis and survival | (21) | |
| Esophageal cancer | Prognosis | (81) | |
| Stomach cancer | Survival | (82) | |
| Pancreatic cancer | Apoptosis, proliferation, growth and anti-tumor immunity | (83) | |
| Colon cancer | Proliferation | ||
| Cervical cancer | Differentiation and survival | (81) | |
| Ovarian cancer | Apoptosis | (84) | |
| Kidney cancer | Prognosis | (85) | |
| Bladder cancer | Prognosis | (79) | |
| Galectin-10 | |||
| Colorectal cancer | Survival | (86) | |
| Galectin-12 | |||
| Acute myelogenous leukemia | Prognosis | (33) | |
| Acute promyelocytic leukemia | Differentiation block | (87) | |