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. 2022 Jun 6;26(12):3862–3877. doi: 10.1007/s10461-022-03714-5

Table 2.

Factors associated with moderate-to-severe depressive symptoms by PHQ-9

Total patients Number with moderate to severe depression Univariate Multivariate
OR 95% CI p aOR 95% CI p
Total 864 161
Age at study assessment (years)  < 0.001  < 0.001
≤ 30 203 55 1 1
31–40 270 57 0.72 (0.47, 1.10) 0.131 0.81 (0.51, 1.28) 0.358
41–50 255 31 0.37 (0.23, 0.61)  < 0.001 0.39 (0.23, 0.66)  < 0.001
> 50 136 18 0.41 (0.23, 0.74) 0.003 0.40 (0.21, 0.75) 0.004
Sex
Male 758 149 1
Female 106 12 0.52 (0.28, 0.98) 0.042
Employment  < 0.001
No 180 49 2.41 (1.59, 3.66)  < 0.001
Full time 499 67 1
Part time 123 34 2.46 (1.54, 3.95)  < 0.001
Not reported/unknown 62 11
Household income (USD) per month  < 0.001  < 0.001
≤ $500 212 59 1 1
$501-$2000 258 40 0.48 (0.30, 0.75) 0.001 0.52 (0.31, 0.87) 0.013
> $2000 257 28 0.32 (0.19, 0.52)  < 0.001 0.31 (0.16, 0.58)  < 0.001
Not reported/unknown 137 34
Highest education level
No education 4 0 N/A
Primary to high school 277 52 1.01 (0.70, 1.45) 0.975
College to university 562 105 1
Not reported/unknown 21 4
HIV mode of exposure 0.031
Heterosexual contact 276 48 1
MSM 460 78 0.97 (0.65, 1.44) 0.880
Injecting drug use 15 6 3.17 (1.08, 9.31) 0.036
Other/Unknown 113 29 1.64 (0.97, 2.77) 0.065
Year of ART initiation 0.066
< 2010 236 31 1
2010–2012 115 18 1.23 (0.65, 2.30) 0.524
2013–2015 189 41 1.83 (1.10, 3.06) 0.021
2016–2020 313 69 1.87 (1.18, 2.97) 0.008
No ART/unknown 11 2 1.47 (0.30, 7.12) 0.633
Viral load at study assessment (copies/mL) 0.016
< 50 535 82 1
50–399 37 7 1.29 (0.55, 3.03) 0.561
400–999 4 1 1.84 (0.19, 17.92) 0.599
≥ 1000 49 14 2.21 (1.14, 4.29) 0.019
Not tested 239 57
CD4 at study assessment (cells/µL)  < 0.001
≤ 200 73 23 1
201–350 94 21 0.63 (0.31, 1.25) 0.184
351–500 123 21 0.45 (0.23, 0.88) 0.021
> 500 319 43 0.34 (0.19, 0.61)  < 0.001
Not tested 255 53
Current ART 0.035
NRTI + NNRTI 455 88 1
NRTI + PI 55 14 1.42 (0.74, 2.73) 0.286
INSTI 320 48 0.74 (0.50, 1.08) 0.119
Other 11 2 0.93 (0.20, 4.37) 0.923
None/unknown 23 9 2.68 (1.12, 6.39) 0.026
ART adverse events in the previous year
No 603 88 1
Yes 93 15 1.13 (0.62, 2.04) 0.698
Not reported/unknown 168 58
ART adherence in the previous year
≥ 95 566 80 1 1
< 95 58 16 2.31 (1.24, 4.31) 0.008 2.41 (1.23, 4.75) 0.011
Not reported/unknown 240 65
Prior AIDS diagnosis
No 556 85 1
Yes 202 37 1.24 (0.81, 1.90) 0.316
Not reported 106 39
HIV disclosure status 0.173
Full 41 9 1
Partial 617 122 0.88 (0.41, 1.88) 0.735
None, to no one 162 22 0.56 (0.24, 1.33) 0.187
No response/not reported/unknown 44 8
Hepatitis B co-infection
Negative 297 36 1
Positive 34 3 0.70 (0.20, 2.41) 0.574
Not tested 533 122
Hepatitis C co-infection
Negative 410 46 1
Positive 30 3 0.88 (0.26, 3.01) 0.838
Not tested 424 112
History of STIs in the past 5 years
No 413 58 1
Yes 263 43 1.20 (0.78, 1.84) 0.413
Not reported/unknown 188 60
Current chronic comorbid condition
No 352 58 1
Yes 150 32 1.37 (0.85, 2.22) 0.195
Not reported/unknown 362 71
Previous mental health diagnosis
No 639 83 1 1
Yes 67 25 3.99 (2.31, 6.88)  < 0.001 2.97 (1.65, 5.32)  < 0.001
Not reported/unknown 158 53
Family history of mental health diagnoses
No 739 125 1
Yes 34 9 1.77 (0.81, 3.88) 0.155
Not reported/unknown 91 27
Previous stressors
No 369 32 1 1
Yes 437 116 3.81 (2.50, 5.79)  < 0.001 3.05 (1.95, 4.75)  < 0.001
Not reported/unknown 58 13
Moderate to high risk substance use
No 439 68 1
Yes 425 93 1.53 (1.08, 2.16) 0.016
World Bank country income grouping
High 334 52 1 1
Upper-middle and lower-middle 530 109 1.40 (0.98, 2.02) 0.067 0.82 (0.49, 1.36) 0.435

Not reported values were included in the analysis as a separate category but were excluded from test for heterogeneity

Global p-value for age, viral load, CD4, household income were test for trend

OR odds ratio, aOR adjusted odds ratio, CI confidence interval, ART antiretroviral therapy, STIs sexually transmitted infections, MSM men who have sex with men, NRTI nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, NNRTI non-NRTI, PI protease inhibitors, INSTI integrase inhibitors