TABLE 4.

Applications of ultrasound and irradiation to improve the extraction of phenolic compounds during red winemaking.

Technology	Sample (volume)	Operation parameters	Main results respect to control treatment	Reference
US	Red grape berries (Monastrel) 800 g	40 Hz, 280 W, 90 min, 18°C	Fresh fermented red wine: US alone and sequential enzyme + US • Total phenols: 9 and 28% higher, respectively • Total tannins: 19 and 42% higher, respectively • Anthocyanins: 7.5 and 13% higher, respectively • Polymeric anthocyanins: 9 and 31% higher, respectively Red wine 3 months of bottle storage: US alone and sequential enzyme + US • Total phenols: 12.5 and 27% higher, respectively • Total tannins: 14 and 59% higher, respectively • Anthocyanins: 9.5 and 9.5% higher, respectively • Polymeric anthocyanins: 13 and 50% higher, respectively	(134)
US	Red grape berries (Tempranillo and Monastrell) 400 kg at 400 kg h–1	28 kHz, 2,500 W, 8 W cm–2	Tempranillo red wine (fresh fermented and 5 months of bottle storage): • Total phenols: 12 and 9% higher, respectively • Anthocyanins: 18 and 48% higher, respectively Monastrell red wine (fresh fermented and 12 months of bottle storage): • Total phenols: 27 and 34% higher, respectively • Total tannins: 58 and 46% higher, respectively • Polymeric anthocyanins: 12 and 21% higher, respectively	(132)
US	Red grape pomace	35 KHz, 60 min, 70°C	•↑ total phenolic content (> 1.5-fold higher) •↑ extraction of acylated anthocyanins (> 6-fold higher) •↑ antioxidant activity (> 1.5-fold higher)	(102)
US	Red grape pomace (Tannat)	Bath mode: 50–100 W, 50 min, 30°C	Extraction in fresh/freeze-dried pomace • Total phenols (100%/180% higher, respectively) • Total monomeric anthocyanins (100%/180% higher, respectively) • Antioxidant capacity (180% higher in freeze-dried)	(181)
γ -irradiation	Red grape berries (Cabernet sauvignon and Shiraz) 500 g	0.5–2 kGy	Better results: wines from irradiated grapes at 1.5 kGy: Cabernet Sauvignon wines (fresh and 4 months of bottle storage) • Total anthocyanin content: 97 and 77% higher, respectively • Total phenolic content: 23 and 31% higher, respectively • Total antioxidant capacity: 42 and 37% higher, respectively Shiraz wines (fresh and 4 months of bottle storage) • Total anthocyanin content: 29 and 45% higher, respectively • Total phenolic content: 16 and 18% higher, respectively • Total antioxidant capacity: 21 and 19% higher, respectively	(137)
e-beam irradiation Continuous process	Red grape berries (Tempranillo) 700 g	0.5–10 kGy, 10 MeV, 50 kW, 100 Hz	• Grape berry: No external modifications of appearance (integrity) • Grape must: Total anthocyanins 70% higher at 10 kGy • Wine: Vinylphenolic pyranoanthocyanins and vitisins were more stable	(136)
Ozone	Red grape berries (Pignola) 6 kg Red grape subject to dehydration for wine production	Shock treatment: 1.5 g/h of O3 for 18 h followed by dehydration in normal atmosphere by 24 days	Grape must after 24 days of dehydration: • Total phenolic content: 16% higher • Anthocyanins: 14% lower	(142)
		Long exposure: 1.5 g/h of O3 for 18 h followed by dehydration in normal atmosphere with 0.5 g/h of O3 for 4 h each day by 22 days	Grape must after 22 days of dehydration: • Total phenolic content: 67% lower • Anthocyanins: 14% lower
Ozone	Red grape berries (Petit Verdot) 500 kg	1.2 g/h of O3 for 12 h at 4°C	Grape must: • Anthocyanins: 19% higher • Tannins: 16% higher During fermentative process: Maximum extraction of grapes O3-treated and untreated: • Anthocyanins: 5 and 11 days, respectively • Phenolics: 7 and 16 days, respectively Wine after malolactic fermentation and stabilization Anthocyanins: 14% higher	(140)
Ozone	Red grape berries (Nebbiolo) 500 kg	30 μL/L at 20°C	Extraction yields in must of Nebbiolo at the end of maceration (240 h) Anthocyanins: • 24 h O3-treated grapes: 87% • 72 h O3-treated grapes: 64% • Control (no-treated grapes): 60% Oligomeric flavanols: • 24 h O3-treated grapes: 86% • 72 h O3-treated grapes: 91% • Control (no-treated grapes): 79% Polymeric flavanols: • 24 h O3-treated grapes: 89% • 72 h O3-treated grapes: 90% Control (no-treated grapes): 81%	(141)