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. 2022 Apr 14;29(6):1094–1106. doi: 10.1038/s41418-022-00998-x

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 3 — Several ncRNA-based therapeutics exist, including antisense oligonucleotides, siRNAs, shRNAs, miRNA mimics, anti-miRNAs, miRNA sponges, and therapeutic circRNAs (box 1). Their major limitations and side effects can expectedly be overcome by usage of unique delivery systems that include lipid and polymer nanoparticles, antibodies, bacteriophages, exosomes and viral vectors (box 2). Newer generation of ncRNA therapeutics with convenient clinical administration (box 3) are awaited candidates due to their numerous advantages, including utilization of existing cellular processing mechanisms, capability of multiple signaling pathway targeting and promising cost-effective production (box 4). siRNA, small interfering RNA; shRNA, short hairpin RNA; antimiRs, anti-microRNAs; circRNAs, circular RNAs. Created with BioRender.