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. 2022 Jun 9;12:9517. doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-13049-9

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Trajectories of loneliness and MDD and GAD outcomes over time. Shaded areas represent periods during which lockdown measures were enforced in the Netherlands. The first 'intelligent' lockdown consisted of restrictions such as social distancing and bans on public gatherings. During the partial lockdown, some restrictions were reintroduced. The 'hard' lockdown introduced more restrictions and a curfew. (A) Marginal GEE effect plot of a GEE model of loneliness scores predicted by a polynomial spline time term. The 95% confidence interval of model-predicted values is not visible because the interval is very small. (B–E) Marginal GEE effect plot of predicted counts of MDD symptoms (B), odds of MDD diagnoses (C), counts of GAD symptoms (D) and odds of GAD diagnoses (E) across different levels (0/green; lowest, 3/orange; moderate, 6/purple; highest) of loneliness scores. Predicted values represent symptoms counts and diagnosis probabilities, and are based on main model fits (Tables 2 and 3). Dashed lines represent a 95% confidence interval of model-predicted values.