Table 1.

Plant protein-based nanoparticles for bioactive ingredient delivery.

Type of Nanoparticles	Preparation Method	Encapsulated Bioactives	Encapsulation Efficiency	Major Outcomes	Refs
Zein nanoparticles	Liquid–liquid dispersion method	Menthol	>90%	A feasible encapsulation carrier was designed for bioactive substances soluble in 90% ethanol.	[52]
Zein nanoparticles	Liquid antisolvent precipitation	Hibiscus sabdariffa extract	89%	At the same time, high encapsulation efficiency and good particle size control in the nanometer range were obtained.	[53]
Zein nanoparticles	Desolvation procedure	Insulin	8% (payload)	The pharmacological activity and relative availability of insulin were significantly improved after insulin was loaded with zein nanoparticles.	[19]
Zein nanoparticles	Electrospraying	Gallic acid	-	The preparation of zein gallic acid nanoparticles by the electrospray method was a feasible technology, which had a potential protective effect on gallic acid.	[54]
Zein nanoparticles	Nanoprecipitation method	Rutin	~88%	Zein nanosystem improved the stability and controlled release of rutin.	[25]
Zein–chondroitin sulfate–sophorolipid composite nanoparticles	Self-assembly technology	Curcumin	63.4% to 98.21%	The ternary nanocrystalline delivery system had good biocompatibility and provided a new idea for the delivery of bioactive substances.	[55]
Zein–propylene glycol alginate–rhamnolipid complex nanoparticles	Emulsification–evaporation method	Resveratrol; Coenzyme Q10	49.54 ± 4.37% to 91.80 ± 4.62%; 84.06 ± 1.49% to 95.51 ± 0.61%	The co-transfer of resveratrol and coenzyme Q10 was achieved, and the chemical stability and synergistic sustained release of resveratrol and coenzyme Q10 were improved.	[56]
Brij-stabilized zein nanoparticles	Nanoprecipitation technique	Rhodamine B; Bromophenol blue	~40%; ~80%	Brij-stabilized zein nanosystem prolonged the release time of the active compound and was a promising and innovative nanomaterial.	[57]
Alginate/chitosan-coated zein nanoparticles	Electrostatic deposition technique	Resveratrol	>70%	The alginate–chitosan layer significantly promoted the release and bioavailability of resveratrol in zein nanoparticles.	[58]
Zein/carboxymethyl dextrin nanoparticles	Antisolvent precipitation	Curcumin	85.5%	The nanoparticles significantly enhanced the photochemical stability, thermal stability, antioxidant activity, and gastrointestinal slow-release effect of curcumin.	[59]
Zein/soluble soybean polysaccharide composite nanoparticles	Antisolvent precipitation method	Lutein	>80%	The complex system was a promising lutein delivery system that could be added as an ingredient to beverages or functional foods.	[60]
Soy protein nanoparticles	Alkali soluble acid precipitation	Anthocyanin	90.02 ± 0.04% to 94.18 ± 0.04%	It provided a valuable reference for the preparation of a new type of Pickering emulsion and improved the stability of bioactive substances.	[61]
Soy protein nanoparticles	Self-assembled nanocomplexation	Curcumin	-	The 5% hydrolyzed soybean protein had the highest loading capacity for curcumin, relatively small particle size, and the best storage stability.	[62]
Soy protein isolate/cellulose nanocrystal composite nanoparticles	Self-assembly technology	Curcumin	88.3%	Composite nanoparticles had high encapsulation efficiency and slow release effect, and were a promising delivery carrier for hydrophobic bioactive substances.	[63]
Soybean protein isolate and fucoidan nanoparticles	Electrostatic interaction	Curcumin	>95%	The composite nanoparticles had a spherical core–shell structure, the embedding rate of curcumin could reach 95%, and the system had long-term dispersion stability.	[64]
Pea protein nanoparticles	Calcium-induced cross-linking	Resveratrol	74.08%	The nanoparticles could be efficient, powerful nanocarriers for the delivery of hydrophobic polyphenols, with great potential in functional beverages.	[65]
Grass pea protein isolate/Alyssum homolocarpum seed gum complex nanoparticles	Antisolvent precipitation	Curcumin	88.22%	The particles could delay the release of Cur under in vitro gastrointestinal conditions.	[66]
Core–shell pea protein–carboxymethylated corn fiber gum composite nanoparticles	Liquid–liquid dispersion method	Curcumin	99.2 ± 0.8% (pH = 3.5)	The core–shell structure afforded curcumin higher antioxidant activity, which provided a new strategy for the delivery of unstable hydrophobic active substances.	[67]
Peanut protein nanoparticles	Calcium-induced	Resveratrol	82.7%	This resveratrol-loaded PPN could serve as a promising delivery system for long-term anti-cancer.	[68]
Peanut protein nanoparticles	Ultrasound-assisted thermo–alkali modification	Curcumin	83.27 ± 1.06%	Compared with pure curcumin, the antioxidant activity was increased with the presence of peanut protein nanoparticles.	[69]
Peanut protein nanoparticles	Alkali extraction and acid precipitation methods	5-demethylnobiletin	-	It provided a new delivery strategy for 5-demethylnobiletin in functional food and beverages.	[20]
Walnut protein nanoparticles	Electrospray technique	Curcumin	61.45 ± 1.61%	The nanosystem could be used as a unique food-grade carrier to improve the water solubility and sustained release of curcumin.	[70]
Gliadin nanoparticles	Antisolvent precipitation	Resveratrol	68.2%	The stability, solubility, and antioxidant capacity of resveratrol were improved by the combination of gliadin nanoparticles and gum Arabic.	[26]
Gliadin–chitosan composite nanoparticles	Antisolvent precipitation	Curcumin	86.1%	The chitosan-modified gliadin nanoparticles showed higher encapsulation efficiency, better stability, and stronger antioxidant capacity for curcumin.	[71]
Gliadin–lecithin composite nanoparticles	Antisolvent precipitation	Curcumin	90.7 ± 0.3%	Gliadin–lecithin composite nanoparticles possessed higher encapsulation efficiency, better stability, and higher antioxidant activity.	[72]
Gliadin nanoparticles	Antisolvent precipitation	Curcumin	91%	Deaminated gliadin nanoparticles had a good encapsulation and protection effect on curcumin and had a good application prospect in the field of nutrition transmission.	[73]
Gliadin–rhamnolipid composite nanoparticles	pH-driven method	Curcumin	98.70%	Composite nanoparticles prepared by pH-driven phytic acid had the potential to be a good nanoparticle delivery system for curcumin in functional foods.	[74]
Barley protein nanoparticles	High-pressure homogenizing method	β-carotene	-	Barley protein nanoparticles could improve the adsorption performance and may be used as a carrier of hydrophobic compounds.	[75]
Rice bran albumin nanoparticles	Antisolvent precipitation approach	Curcumin	95.94%	Nanoparticulate curcumin formulation showed improved in vitro antioxidant activity, anti-inflammatory activity, and in vitro antiproliferative activity on tumor cells of curcumin in aqueous solution as compared with free curcumin.	[76]
Rice bran albumin–chitosan nanoparticles	Self-assembly technology	Curcumin	93.56%	Composite nanoparticles had good biodegradability and had great potential as green and renewable materials in the transport of hydrophobic active substances.	[77]
Rice protein	Antisolvent method	Lutein	89.8% to 94.1%	It provided a reference strategy for the stabilization of lutein and nutrient delivery.	[78]
Carboxymethylcellulose-modified rice protein nanoparticles	Antisolvent method	Lutein	-	This nano-system enhanced the absorption of lutein, which is helpful for the further development and application of new nano-delivery systems of lutein.	[48]