Table 1.
Pooled prevalence of COVID-19 consequences at follow-up 6 months and above.
| Consequences | 6–12 Months | 12 Months and Above | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Number of Studies | Patients n/N |
PP (%) |
95% CI (%) |
p-Value | I2 | Number of Studies | Patients n/N |
PP (%) |
95% CI (%) |
p-Value | I2 | |
| General symptoms | ||||||||||||
| ≥1 Symptom | 13 | 4051/6477 | 63.87 | 53.64–74.09 | <0.05 | 98.70% | 8 | 1230/2290 | 58.89 | 45.87–71.91 | <0.05 | 97.20% |
| Fever | 7 | 64/3403 | 2.07 | 0.32–3.82 | <0.05 | 93.50% | 7 | 12/778 | 3.53 | −0.45–7.50 | >0.05 | 70.40% |
| Chill | 2 | 129/815 | 13.0 3 | −0.33–26.39 | >0.05 | 97.20% | ||||||
| Fatigue | 10 | 793/3000 | 30.94 | 20.21.41.66 | <0.05 | 98.20% | 14 | 822/3248 | 34.22 | 23.75–44.70 | <0.05 | 98.00% |
| Muscle weakness | 2 | 34/847 | 4.2 | 1.68–6.72 | <0.05 | 15.40% | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Myalgia or joint pain | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2 | 187/503 | 34.52 | 9.01–60.02 | <0.05 | 97.50% |
| Fatigue or muscle weakness | 3 | 1949/3459 | 54.21 | 45.16–63.27 | <0.05 | 96.40% | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Limited mobility | 3 | 83/943 | 21.81 | −4.17–47.78 | <0.05 | 97.90% | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Myalgia | 9 | 271/4988 | 6.34 | 3.89–8.79 | <0.05 | 93.90% | 9 | 128/2368 | 6.59 | 4.05–9.13 | <0.05 | 79.80% |
| Joint pain | 6 | 396/3900 | 11.25 | 7.53–14.98 | <0.05 | 92.60% | 8 | 320/2058 | 18.73 | 12.24 –25.22 | <0.05 | 91.60% |
| Headache | 8 | 174/5134 | 3.68 | 2.20–5.15 | <0.05 | 89.70% | 5 | 93/1787 | 5.24 | 3.47–7.01 | <0.05 | 37.00% |
| Dizziness | 5 | 263/3289 | 14.96 | 9.72 –20.19 | <0.05 | 95.40% | 3 | 100/1607 | 8.14 | 3.82–12.46 | <0.05 | 77.70% |
| Olfactory or taste loss | 4 | 161/1556 | 14.38 | 8.40–20.36 | <0.05 | 90.20% | 2 | 21/259 | 8.21 | 2.84–13.58 | <0.05 | 54.60% |
| Olfactory loss | 8 | 491/4507 | 10.07 | 5.47–14.68 | <0.05 | 97.20% | 8 | 127/2004 | 8.22 | 5.21–11.23 | <0.05 | 70.00% |
| Taste loss | 8 | 338/4507 | 7.48 | 4.46–10.50 | <0.05 | 94.70% | 7 | 88/2308 | 4.55 | 2.45–6.65 | <0.05 | 78.00% |
| Hair loss | 7 | 712–4485 | 11.58 | 4.08–19.08 | <0.05 | 98.90% | 4 | 255–1807 | 18.42 | 9.21–27.63 | <0.05 | 94.30% |
| Cutaneous | 7 | 150/4200 | 3.87 | 2.32–5.43 | <0.05 | 84.50% | 5 | 99/2121 | 4.5 | 3.42–5.58 | <0.05 | 16.40% |
| Respiratory symptoms | ||||||||||||
| Respiratory symptoms | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2 | 79/241 | 32.7 | 3.97–61.43 | <0.05 | 96.20% |
| Cough | 12 | 381/3241 | 13.85 | 9.00–18.70 | <0.05 | 96.40% | 9 | 81/973 | 9.54 | 5.26–13.81 | <0.05 | 83.10% |
| Expectoration | 3 | 36/554 | 6.45 | 1.01–11.90 | <0.05 | 86.60% | 4 | 30/488 | 7.97 | 1.23–14.71 | <0.05 | 88.50% |
| Rhinorrhea | 2 | 13/267 | 7.44 | –5.43–20.30 | >0.05 | 89.00% | 2 | 68/210 | 30.93 | 11.60–50.26 | <0.05 | 90.10% |
| Sore throat or difficulty swallowing | 7 | 233/4885 | 4.43 | 2.49–6.37 | <0.05 | 92.60% | 6 | 78/1870 | 7.33 | 3.19–11.48 | <0.05 | 78.20% |
| Dyspnea | 12 | 717/3173 | 27.06 | 18.67–35.44 | <0.05 | 97.60% | 8 | 127/1129 | 16.43 | 9.66–23.20 | <0.05 | 91.90% |
| mMRC = 0 | 5 | 3491/3673 | 74.5 | 66.94–82.06 | <0.05 | 91.50% | 3 | 1042/1448 | 80.64 | 62.87–98.42 | <0.05 | 97.70% |
| mMRC ≥ 1 | 5 | 3491/3673 | 24.49 | 21.17–27.81 | <0.05 | 76.30% | 4 | 510/1622 | 29.1 | 10.64–47.56 | <0.05 | 98.10% |
| Cardiovascular symptoms | ||||||||||||
| Chest tightness | 2 | 200/815 | 21.18 | 4.94–37.43 | <0.05 | 97.00% | 3 | 24/278 | 10.24 | 0.77–19.71 | <0.05 | 62.30% |
| Chest pain | 9 | 265/5572 | 4.78 | 2.88–6.68 | <0.05 | 92.20% | 5 | 117–2009 | 7.76 | 2.60–12.91 | <0.05 | 93.50% |
| Back pain | 2 | 20/478 | 7.19 | −3.04–17.42 | >0.05 | 84.30% | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Palpitations | 5 | 303/3604 | 7.19 | 3.68–10.71 | <0.05 | 93.40% | 7 | 173/2299 | 6.79 | 3.81–9.78 | < 0.05 | 86.00% |
| Gastrointestinal symptoms | ||||||||||||
| GI symptoms | 4 | 87/1049 | 15.62 | 4.91–26.34 | <0.05 | 96.80% | 5 | 71/1178 | 6.57 | 2.48–10.65 | <0.05 | 90.60% |
| Loss of appetite | 7 | 310/5106 | 4.65 | 1.98–7.32 | <0.05 | 96.70% | 5 | 58/1666 | 3.87 | 1.86–5.88 | <0.05 | 47.10% |
| Nausea, vomiting or diarrhea | 4 | 126/3699 | 3.47 | 1.41–5.52 | <0.05 | 91.80% | 4 | 34/1550 | 5.86 | 0.73–11.00 | <0.05 | 84.80% |
| Nausea | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2 | 8/63 | 10.55 | 0.75–20.35 | <0.05 | 41.70% |
| Vomiting | 2 | 16/996 | 2.01 | 1.03–2.98 | <0.05 | 0 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Diarrhea | 8 | 146/2272 | 6 | 2.86–9.15 | <0.05 | 94.10% | 4 | 8/397 | 2.18 | –0.56–4.91 | >0.05 | 45.90% |
| Stomachache | 2 | 50/865 | 6.52 | 2.48–10.57 | <0.05 | 40.70% | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Constipation | 2 | 22/865 | 6.01 | −3.69–15.71 | >0.05 | 84.50% | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Altered bowel habits | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2 | 27/165 | 16.17 | 10.56–21.78 | <0.05 | 0.00% |
| Neurological symptoms | ||||||||||||
| Neurological symptoms | 3 | 232/1803 | 10.81 | 0.40–21.21 | <0.05 | 98.60% | 4 | 167/634 | 23.85 | 11.42–36.29 | <0.05 | 92.70% |
| Polyneuropathy | 2 | 32/847 | 7.48 | −2.95–17.91 | >0.05 | 79.30% | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Paresthesias | 4 | 68/1305 | 6.24 | 2.24–10.24 | <0.05 | 93.60% | 4 | 127/679 | 17.42 | 6.90–27.95 | <0.05 | 92.70% |
| Disorientation or confusion | 3 | 37/1237 | 2.7 | 0.31–5.09 | <0.05 | 88.10% | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Forgetfulness | 2 | 131/815 | 18.65 | 5.23–32.08 | <0.05 | 94.80% | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Memory loss | 3 | 89/850 | 10.65 | 1.86–19.43 | <0.05 | 96.50% | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Visual impairment | 3 | 30/760 | 8.11 | −0.22–16.45 | >0.05 | 89.40% | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Hearing impairment | 2 | 15/815 | 1.76 | 0.86–2.67 | <0.05 | 0.00% | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Psychiatric symptoms | ||||||||||||
| Sleep difficulty | 9 | 1146/5121 | 24.11 | 14.67–33.56 | <0.05 | 98.90% | 5 | 476/2120 | 26.31 | 15.73–36.89 | <0.05 | 96.20% |
| GAD-7 score ≥ 10 | 2 | 62/639 | 10.8 | 8.26–13.34 | <0.05 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Depression | 6 | 301/1968 | 20.16 | 10.36–29.97 | <0.05 | 97.30% | 5 | 196/737 | 27.26 | 16.23–38.30 | <0.05 | 92.30% |
| Anxiety | 6 | 374/1970 | 25.19 | 13.88–36.49 | <0.05 | 97.60% | 5 | 213/737 | 29.78 | 16.29–43.27 | <0.05 | 94.70% |
| PTSD | 3 | 73/522 | 13.41 | 4.30–22.51 | <0.05 | 88.70% | 3 | 68/523 | 11.57 | 0.50–22.64 | <0.05 | 95.70% |
| Difficulty concentrating | 3 | 111/719 | 22.47 | 4.49–40.44 | <0.05 | 96.90% | 3 | 100/ 376 | 29.47 | 19.80–39.14 | <0.05 | 69.50% |
| PFT | ||||||||||||
| FVC < 80% | 4 | 45/441 | 13.66 | 5.23–22.09 | <0.05 | 64.90% | 5 | 43/ 374 | 12.78 | 3.99–21.56 | <0.05 | 87.10% |
| FEV1 < 80% | 2 | 11/46 | 28.03 | 1.04–55.03 | <0.05 | 66.80% | 3 | 28/216 | 13.81 | 5.57–22.05 | <0.05 | 59.50% |
| FEV1/FEV < 70% | 2 | 8/46 | 22.86 | 8.95–36.77 | <0.05 | - | 3 | 9/ 223 | 4.01 | −1.37–9.39 | >0.05 | 67.10% |
| VC < 80% | 2 | 43/323 | 13.27 | 9.57–16.97 | <0.05 | 0.00% | 2 | 22/199 | 11.05 | 6.70–15.41 | <0.05 | 0.00% |
| TLC < 80% | - | - | - | - | - | - | 4 | 28/285 | 9.28 | 4.28–14.27 | <0.05 | 49.40% |
| DLCO < 80% | 4 | 223/510 | 49.1 | 33.27–64.92 | <0.05 | 90.60% | 6 | 115/371 | 31.8 | 18.65–44.95 | <0.05 | 88.10% |
| CT results | ||||||||||||
| CT abnormality | 4 | 291/627 | 55.68 | 26.75–84.62 | <0.05 | 98.40% | 4 | 139/330 | 43.76 | 7.78–79.74 | <0.05 | 98.30% |
| GGO | 5 | 102/408 | 21.25 | 9.79–32.71 | <0.05 | 89.10% | 4 | 74/292 | 21.35 | 8.30–34.39 | <0.05 | 87.80% |
| Consolidation | 4 | 11/325 | 2.56 | 0.78–4.35 | <0.05 | 5.50% | 2 | 2/112 | 2.13 | –0.79–5.04 | >0.05 | - |
| Reticular pattern | 4 | 36/290 | 11.3 | 3.29–19.30 | <0.05 | 80.30% | 3 | 7/195 | 3.93 | 1.07–6.79 | <0.05 | 0.00% |
| Fibrosis | 3 | 108/272 | 66.28 | 52.35–80.21 | <0.05 | 63.00% | 3 | 29/209 | 13.88 | 6.04–21.72 | <0.05 | 56.40% |
| Crazy paving pattern | 3 | 0/211 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Air bronchogram | 3 | 0/211 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Bronchiectasis | 3 | 57/315 | 16.19 | −1.82–34.21 | >0.05 | 96.50% | 2 | 15/180 | 7.39 | −5.54–20.33 | >0.05 | 91.90% |
| Traction bronchiectasis | 2 | 16/93 | 17.63 | −3.45–38.70 | >0.05 | 86.20% | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Nodules | 2 | 20/166 | 9 | −5.43–23.44 | >0.05 | 92.70% | 3 | 87/209 | 38.56 | 18.95–58.17 | <0.05 | 87.20% |
| Irregular interface | 2 | 12/93 | 12.88 | 6.07–19.68 | <0.05 | 0.00% | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Parenchymal band | 2 | 30/93 | 32.53 | 16.45–48.60 | <0.05 | 64.90% | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Pleural effusion | 3 | 2/284 | 1.69 | −0.63–4.02 | >0.05 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Pericardial effusion | 2 | 16/170 | 13.56 | 7.38–19.74 | <0.05 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Lymphadenopathy | 2 | 5/170 | 4.24 | 0.60–7.87 | <0.05 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Interlobular septal thickening | 4 | 63/294 | 21.75 | 6.66–36.84 | <0.05 | 91.60% | 3 | 14/195 | 7.33 | 1.68–12.98 | <0.05 | 53.80% |
| Lines and bands | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2 | 60/191 | 30.97 | −0.91–62.85 | >0.05 | 96.30% |
| Quality of life evaluation (EQ-5D-5L) | ||||||||||||
| Mobility | 4 | 278/3421 | 10.36 | 6.88–13.83 | <0.05 | 90.90% | 2 | 132/1436 | 9.18 | 7.68–10.67 | <0.05 | 0.00% |
| Personal care | 4 | 40/3422 | 0.94 | 0.11–1.77 | <0.05 | 83.20% | 2 | 23/1436 | 1.6 | 0.95–2.25 | <0.05 | 0.00% |
| Usual activity | 4 | 129/3413 | 6.68 | 3.61–9.76 | <0.05 | 96.30% | 2 | 52/1436 | 10.76 | −8.04–29.55 | >0.05 | 97.30% |
| Pain or discomfort | 4 | 989/3415 | 33.26 | 27.01–39.51 | <0.05 | 92.60% | 2 | 441/1436 | 35.31 | 22.38–48.24 | <0.05 | 90.60% |
| Anxiety and depression | 4 | 882/3418 | 33.49 | 23.87–43.12 | <0.05 | 97.20% | 2 | 406/1436 | 35.4 | 16.39–54.41 | <0.05 | 95.60% |
| 6MWT (distance lower than expected %) | 3 | 1086/3258 | 17.33 | 10.64–24.02 | <0.05 | 95.60% | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Abbreviations: PP, pooled prevalence; CI, confidence interval; mMRC, Modified Medical Research Council Dyspnea Scale; GI, gastrointestinal; GAD-7, generalized anxiety disorder-7; PTSD, post-traumatic stress disorder; PFT, pulmonary functional test; FVC, forced vital capacity; FEV1, forced expiratory volume in one second; FEV1/FEV, forced expiratory volume in one second/forced expiratory volume; VC, vital capacity; TLC, total lung capacity; DLCO, carbon monoxide diffusing capacity; CT, computerized tomography; GGO, ground-glass opacity; EQ-5D-5L, European Quality of Life Five-Dimension Five-Level Scale; 6 MWT, 6-min walk test.