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. 2022 Jun 2;11(11):1824. doi: 10.3390/cells11111824

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© 2022 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Example of generalizable principles of immune cell phenotype changes. Age, lifespan and microenvironments are known to impact occurrence and regulation of immune cell phenotypes. Additionally, mechanical forces, leading to deformation and disruption of membrane components, can lead to changes in shape, membrane composition, activation patterns and overall phenotype appearance. Demand-dependent (re-)production leads to occurrence of various distinct phenotypes, including immature, pro-inflammatory and immunomodulatory cellular phenotypes.