Table 4.
Pharmacological functions and mechanisms of occurrence of silkworm pupae.
| Pharmacological Functions | Species of Silkworm Pupae | Functional Ingredients | Cell Line/Animal Model or Method | In Vivo or In Vitro | Occurring Mechanism or Effect |
Evaluation of Research Findings | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Antitumor | Bombyx mori | Protein hydrolysates | Human gastric cancer SGC-7901 cells | In vitro | Inhibits the proliferation of human gastric cancer cells SGC-7901 and stimulates their abnormal morphological features; induces apoptosis and blocks the cell cycle in S phase; causes the accumulation of ROS and depolarisation of the mitochondrial membrane potential. | Silkworm pupae could be a source of anticancer drugs in the future. | [44] |
| Bombyx mori | Protein hydrolysates | MGC-803 gastric cancer cells | In vitro | Structural changes in intracellular organelles, including mitochondrial swelling, vacuolisation and rupture. Impact on the metabolic energy supply of MGC-803 cells. | Represents a potential chemotherapy candidate for the treatment of gastric tumours. | [45] | |
| Bombyx mori; Samia ricini | Protein extracts | Breast cancer cells MCF-7 | In vitro | MCF-7 cells had significantly lower protein and nucleic acid content, as well as significantly lower IL-6, IL-1, and TNF- levels. | May provide a potential novel therapeutic target for breast cancer. | [46] | |
| Ziyang silkworm pupae | Se-rich amino acids | Human hepatoma cells | In vitro | Significantly and dose-dependently inhibits cell viability, induces changes in cell morphology and cycle, and causes apoptosis. It induces apoptosis through the production of ROS. | It could be used as an anticancer medicine or as a food source of necessary amino acids and trace elements for everyday health. | [33] | |
| Antioxidant | Antheraea assamensis | Methanolic pupae extract | — | In vitro | Free-radical scavenging activity that is dose-dependant. | — | [35] |
| Bombyx mori | Protein hydrolysates | — | In vitro | ABTS free-radical scavenging activity is strong. | Potential usage as a natural antioxidant in functional foods to help prevent diseases caused by oxidative stress. | [47] | |
| Bombyx mori | Protein hydrolysates | Hepatic HepG2 cells | In vitro | In HepG2 cells, the antioxidant activity was highest (ROS reduction, superoxide dismutase expression, and glutathione synthesis activity). | May have potential as natural antioxidants. | [48] | |
| Bombyx mori; Antheraea mylitta; Antheraea assamensis | Polyphenols | — | In vitro | High ROS scavenging activity was observed. | Effective as a natural antioxidant in the development of protein-rich foods. | [49] | |
| — | 30% ethanol extract | HepG2 cells | In vitro | Scavenging action against DPPH and ABTS; helping remove ROS. | Silkworm pupae can be used to generate culinary ingredients and functional materials. | [50] | |
| Antibacterial | Bombyx mori | Chitin and chitosan | Bacillus cereus; Staphylococcus aureus; E. coli; Klebsiella pneumonia | In vitro | Antifungal activity is comparable to, if not superior to, commercially available chitosan. Bacterial inhibition was greatest between 1 and 2 h and began to achieve saturation after 24 h. | Silkworm pupae are a renewable and sustainable source of chitosan that may be used in both food and medicine. | [40] |
| Bombyx mori | Peptides | — | In vitro | The Peptide Ranker and the CAMP (Collection of Anti-Microbial Peptides) database found peptide sequences with potential bioactivity with the highest score. | It can be utilised as a high-quality protein source. | [25] | |
| Bombyx mori | Oil |
Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1; Escherichia coli C1a; Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538P; Bacillus subtilis ATCC 6633 |
In vitro | Gram-positive Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus were sensitive to H. illucens- and B. mori-derived oils, but Gram-negative Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli were not. | Silkworm pupae oil can be used as an effective antibacterial agent. | [51] | |
| Antiapoptotic | Bombyx mori | Silkworm Protein 30Kc6 | The in vitro cell apoptosis model of HUVEC that was induced by oxidised low-density lipoprotein. | In vitro | Cell-mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK), particularly JNK and p38, were activated by oxidised low-density lipoprotein; 30Kc6 prevented oxidised low-density lipoprotein-induced cell death in HUVEC cells by blocking MAPK signalling pathways. | It has the potential to provide crucial information for human cardiovascular disease prevention and treatment. | [52] |
| Bombyx mori | Silkworm haemolymph | Insect cells (Sf 9) infected with baculovirus (AcNPV) | In vitro | The silkworm’s haemolymph may directly affect the baculovirus-induced apoptosis cascade or promote the expression of antiapoptotic baculovirus genes such as p35. | Antiapoptotic components can be found in silkworm haemolymph. | [53] | |
| Bombyx mori | Recombinant 30 K protein | HeLa cells; Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) cells |
In vitro | In human and insect cells, recombinant 30 K protein prevents apoptosis triggered by viruses or chemicals. | A number of human disorders linked to apoptosis may benefit from the use of recombinant 30 K protein. | [54] | |
| Bombyx mori | Silkworm haemolymph | The vaccinia virus–HeLa cell system | In vitro | Silkworm haemolymph inhibited apoptosis, which reduced cell detachment from an adhering surface. | In commercial animal cell cultures, silkworm pupae haemolymph is helpful in preventing cell death. | [55] | |
| Blood pressure reduction | — | Peptide hydrolysates | Spontaneously hypertensive rats | In vivo | In the treated group, there was a dose-related drop in systolic blood pressure. In normal and non-hypertensive rats, peptide hydrolysate had no effect on systolic blood pressure. | The peptide hydrolysate in silkworm pupae protein possesses antihypertensive effect that is both safe and healthy, which will aid in the investigation of silkworm protein peptides as a functional component of antihypertensive therapy. | [56] |
| Bombyx mori | Protein hydrolysates | RP- HPLC | In vitro | Angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitory action is found in silkworm protein hydrolysates. | Angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitor medicines could come from this source. | [57] | |
| Bombyx mori | Protein hydrolysates | RP- HPLC | In vitro | With a half-inhibitory concentration of 102.15 M, the tripeptide inhibited the angiotensin-converting enzyme; the mode of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition was competitive. | It can be utilised in antihypertensive supplemental therapy foods as a functional element. | [58] | |
| Bombyx mori | Protein hydrolysates | HPLC | In vitro | By flexible docking calculation, the peptide inhibitory activity was 0.047 mg/mL in IC50, and it was bound to Asp415, Asp453, Thr282, His 353, and Glu162 in the hydrogen bond to the angiotensin-converting enzyme active pocket. | It could be a good idea to look into functional foods that have antihypertension bioactivity. | [59] | |
| Blood lipid reduction; weight loss |
Bombyx mori | Protein hydrolysates | 3T3-L1 cells | In vitro | Upregulation of GLUT4 increases glucose absorption, whereas upregulation of leptin lowers fat storage. | For the first time, silk protein hydrolysate decreased fat accumulation by affecting leptin up-regulation during 3T3-L1 preadipocyte development into fibroblasts. | [60] |
| Bombyx mori | Peptides | 3T3-L1 preadipocytes | In vitro | Adipogenesis is inhibited when adipogenic gene expression and protein synthesis are blocked, resulting in a decrease in body weight gain. | Alternatives to reduce dietary obesity that have no negative effects could be viable options. | [61] | |
| — | Oil | Sprague– Dawley rats | in vivo | Consumption of silkworm pupae stimulates fat metabolism, lowering blood lipid levels. | The consumption of silkworm pupae reduces fat storage, which is thought to be useful in the prevention of metabolic syndrome. | [62] | |
| Blood glucose regulation | Bombyx mori | Soluble fibroin | 3T3-L1 adipocyte | in vitro | In 3T3-L1 adipocytes, fibronectin promotes glucose absorption and metabolism. | This could explain why the body’s response to fibre improves diabetic hyperglycaemia. | [63] |
| Bombyx mori | Purified fibroin | A Spanish hybrid of silkworm races (Sierra Morena X Bagdad) | In vivo | The findings show a decrease in glucose levels in the haemolymph. | Diabetes, obesity, and other lifestyle-related disorders may benefit from this supplement. | [64] | |
| Bombyx mori | Protein | Male C57BL/6 mice | in vivo | The protein from silkworm pupae lowers blood glucose levels considerably. | — | [61] | |
| Cardiovascular protection | Bombyx mori | Crude extract | Male New Zealand white rabbits | in vivo | The size of the atherosclerotic plaques was reduced histopathologically. | There is a scientific basis for naming Bombyx mori cocoon extract as a cardioprotective and neuroprotective medication. | [65] |
| — | Silkworm pupae oil sodium salt | Rat VSMCs cells | In vitro | ERK1/2 phosphorylation was downregulated in PDGF-bb-stimulated VSMCs, which inhibited PDGF-bb-induced cell migration and proliferation. | As a functional food and medicine, it could be beneficial in the treatment of vascular problems. | [66] | |
| Bombyx mori | Silkworm Protein 30Kc6 | In vivo atherosclerosis rabbit model | In vivo | It reduced serum levels of total triglycerides (TGs), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDLC), and total cholesterol (TC) in atherosclerotic rabbits, improving their condition. | Providing critical information for the prevention and treatment of human cardiovascular disease. | [52] | |
| Liver protection | Bombyx mori | Oil | Acetaminophen-induced acute liver injury Kunming mice model |
In vivo | Silkworm pupa oil reduced MDA levels while enhancing SOD and GSH-Px activity, preventing APAP-induced oxidative stress. Overall, silkworm pupa oil protected against APAP-induced liver injury, which was related to the suppression of the oxidative stress-mediated NF-B signalling pathway; SPO also protected against APAP-induced liver injury. | Silkworm pupa oil supplementation could be a viable treatment option for acute liver damage. | [67] |
| Bombyx mori | Fermented silkworm powder | Sprague–Dawley rats | In vivo | It significantly reduces hepatic alcohol dehydrogenase and acetaldehyde dehydrogenase activity and significantly increases serum AST, g-GTP, and LDH activity, as well as blood alcohol and acetaldehyde levels. | A promising pharmacological candidate for the prevention of hepatotoxicity and oxidative stress caused by alcohol. | [68] | |
| Treatment of gastric ulcers | Bombyx mori | Oil | Hydrochloric acid/ethanol-induced gastric ulcers Kunming mice model |
In vivo | Gastric ulcer area and secretions were reduced by silkworm pupae oil, but gastric pH increased. SOD, CAT, GSH-Px, SST, and VIP serum levels increased, while IL-6, IL-12, TNF-α, IFN-γ, MTL, and GT serum levels dropped. Meanwhile, EGF, EGFR, VEGF, and eNOS expressions were increased, while NF-κB, Bcl-2, COX-2, and iNOS expressions were decreased. | In mice, silkworm pupa oil decreased oxidative damage and inflammation. | [69] |
| Immune regulation | Bombyx mori | Polysaccharide | Penaeid prawns | In vivo | Innate immunity is turned on. | In penaeid prawns, it effectively inhibits vibriosis. | [41] |
| Bombyx mori | Peptides | Mouse spleen cells | In vitro | Immune-related factors such as interleukin-6 and interleukin-12, nuclear factor-B, cyclin D1, and cyclin-dependent kinase 4 are all stimulated. | Silkworm pupae polysaccharides have an immunomodulatory function and may have medicinal promise. | [70] | |
| Antigenotoxic | Antheraea assamensis | — | Normal human leukocytes; Comet assay | In vitro | At a dosage of 1 mg/mL, pupae extract protects against hydrogen peroxide-induced DNA damage. | The inclusion of polyphenolic groups and fatty acids such as linoleic acid may explain pupae’s antigenotoxic activity. | [35] |
| As bioreactor | Bombyx mori | — | Silkworm pupae | In vivo | Silkworm nucleopolyhedrosis virus was used to successfully express the human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor in silkworm pupae. | For heterologous protein expression, the silkworm pupa is a convenient and low-cost bioreactor. | [71] |
| Antifatigue | Bombyx mori | Powders of silkworm, pupae, dongchunghacho, and silk powder | ICR mice | in vivo | Increases swimming time and muscle mass in mice while reducing tiredness. | It has antifatigue properties and may help athletes perform better. | [72] |
| Anti-Alzheimer’s disease | Bombyx mori | Silkworm pupa vaccine | Transgenic mouse model of AD | In vivo | Recombinant proteins synthesised in domestic silkworm pupae reduced brain deposition, lowered malondialdehyde levels, and improved memory and cognitive performance in mice. | The very nutritious CTB-A15 silkworm pupae vaccine could be used to prevent Alzheimer’s disease in the future. | [73] |
| Bombyx mori | Silkworm pupae Powder | Male Wistar rats | Hippocampal memory deficit was significantly reduced in vivo, as was hippocampal neuron density. | Silkworm pupae appear to be a potentially useful meal for Alzheimer’s disease prevention. Hippocampal memory deficit was significantly reduced, as was hippocampal neuron density. | [74] | ||
| Alcohol detoxification | Bombyx mori | Extracts | Imprinting Control Region (ICR) mice | In vivo | There is a significant increase in alcohol dehydrogenase activity in the livers of mice given 0.5 mg/mL silkworm pupae extract orally. | The positive effect of silkworm pupae extract on animal alcohol detoxification suggests that the extract could be employed as a therapeutic substance to help people avoid hangovers. | [75] |
| Antiageing | Bombyx mori | Oils and sericin | — | Oils and sericin have tyrosinase inhibitory and free-radical scavenging properties in vitro. | Antiaging and whitening cosmetics are possible applications. | [76] | |
| Inhibits the proliferation of fibroblasts | — | Carboxymethyl chitosan | Mouse L929 fibroblasts | In vitro | SP-carboxymethyl chitosan suppresses cell growth and drastically reduces TGF-β1/Smads signalling pathway gene and protein expression. | Through the TGF-β1/Smads signalling pathway, SP-carboxymethyl chitosan may impact L929 cell proliferation and inhibit postoperative adhesion. | [43] |
“—” indicates not stated in the literature.