Table 3.
Prebiotic efficiency in modulating the GM.
| Prebiotics | Model | Strategy/Duration of Feeding | Dose Supplemented | Form | No. of Applications | Re-Calculated Dose * | Fecal Microbial Changes Relative to Control | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Inulin | 17 elderly women (mean age = 76.4 years body weight not reported) |
8 days, (3 days adaptation) Feeding was continued for 8 days | 20 g/day and increased to 40 g/day |
Dissolved in drinking water | Once/day | 285.7 mg/kg/day and increased to 571.4 mg/kg/day |
significant ↑ in Bifidobacteria ↓ in Enterococci and Enterobacteriaceae |
[154] |
| 10 healthy volunteers (age = between 20 and 55 years Body weight not reported) |
14 days | 8 g/day | Dissolved in drinking water | Twice/day | 114.3 mg/kg/day | significant ↑ in Bifidobacteria ↑ in the number of Clostridia |
[155] | |
| Germ-free adult male Fischer rats (age = 10 weeks and body weight = 280 g) | 8 weeks | 1.84 g/day of the diet | Mixed with chow | During the day | 6.57 g/kg/day | significant ↑ in producing SCFAs | [156] | |
| FOS | Male Wistar rats (age = 2 months and body weight 403.2 ± 48.1 g) |
7 days | 8% of the diet | Mixed with chow | During the day | 3.4 g/kg/day | ↑ the bioavailability of nutritionally important minerals | [158] |
| FOS + GOS | 10 Male C57BL/6J mice (age 8 weeks old mice; mean body weight = 28 g) | 10 weeks | 0.3 –0.4 g/mouse/day | Dissolved in drinking water | During the day | 1.1–1.43 g/kg/day | ↑ Akkermansia abundance | [164] |
| GOS | 18 healthy human (age and body weight not indicated) | 3 weeks | 2.5 g/day 5 g/day, 10 g/day |
Administered in edible chews | Once/day | 35.7 mg/kg/day 71.4 mg/kg/day, 142 mg/kg/day |
significant ↑ in abundance of Bifidobacteria and Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, ↓ in Bacteroides |
[161] |
| Mud crab (age not reported and body weight 63.6 ± 8.8 g) |
24 h | 0.05 g/day | Dissolved in water | During the day | 786 mg/kg/day | ↑ Bacteroidetes | [163] | |
| PDX/FOS | 77 Children (age 5.8 ± 1.3; body weight not reported) | 2 weeks | 4.17 g PDX + 0.45 g FOS | Dissolved in drinking water | Once/day | PDX 200 mg/kg/day + FOS 22 mg/kg/day |
↑ in number of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus | [176] |
| PDX | 20 Healthy men (Age = 27.5 6 ± 4.33; body weight = 86.26 ± 13.48 kg) | 21 days | 21 g/day | Mixed in bar | Once/day | 243.4 mg/kg/day | ↑ in number of Faecalibacterium, Phascolarctobacterium, and Dialister | [175] |
| 15 Healthy volunteers (age = 18–50 body weight not reported) |
3 weeks | 8 g/day | Powder | Once/day | 243.5 mg/kg/day | ↑ Ruminococcus intestinalis, Clostridium clusters I, II and IV, significantly ↓ levels of Lactobacillus and Enterococcus group |
[177] | |
| RS | 6 Male C57BL/6J mice (18–20 month old and body weight not reported) | 8 weeks | 0.54 g/day | Mixed with chow | During the day | 18 g/kg/day | ↑ in number of Bacteroidetes, Bifidobacterium and Akkermansia species | [178] |
| Sprague-Dawley rats (age 6 weeks and body weight not reported) | 12 weeks | 27% of the diet | Mixed with chow | During the day | 18 g/kg/day | ↑ in SCFAs | [180] | |
| POS | Pigs’ fecal inoculum (age 4 years and the mean body weight 233.0 ± 10.02 kg) | 48 h | 9 g/of POS to 1 mL of inoculum | Mixed with the chow | - | - | ↑ in SCFAs | [183] |
| Lactulose | 12 healthy volunteers (age = (24 to 31 years and body weight not reported) | 4 weeks | 20 g/day | Mixed with chow | Twice/day | 285.7 mg/kg/day | ↑ in number of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus. | [186] |
| Lactosucrose | Red seabream Pagrus major (age and body weight not reported) |
9 months | 20 mg/kg/day | Mixed with chow | Once/day | 20 mg/kg/day | ↑ production of SCFAs | [192] |
| 8 Shepherd dogs (body weight = 22 to 32 kg; mean age = 13.5 months) | 2 weeks | 1.5 g/day | Mixed with chow | Twice/day | 55.6 mg/kg/day | ↓ in the levels of f Clostridium pefringms ↑ Bifidobacterium |
[122] | |
| 16 Broiler chickens (20–62 days and body weight not reported) |
62 days | 825 mg/day | Mixed with chow | During the day | 458 mg/kg/day | ↑ in the number of Bifidobacterium ↓ the number of Bacteriodaceae; Staphylococci; and total anaerobic bacteria, C. perfringens |
[198] | |
| 8 Cats (Mean agae + 7; body weight 3.5 kg) |
2 weeks | 50 mg of lactosucrose/day | Mixed with the chow | During the day | 14 mg/kg/day | ↑ in Lactobacilli and Bifidobacterium ↓ in Clostridium perfringens, clostridia, Spirochaetaceae, and Enterobacteriaceae |
[185] | |
| AX | 10 human children (mean age, 3 years, 7 months body weight not reported) (in vitro) |
48 h | 10 g/liter | Dissolved in drinking water | - | -- | ↑ in number of Lactobacillus | [196] |
| XOS | 12 healthy adult women (mean age for women = 33.6 years and body weight not reported) and 11 healthy men (mean age = 30.1 and body weight not reported) | 8 weeks | 1.4 g/day or 2.8 g/day | Capsule | Once/day | 20 or 40 mg/kg/day | ↑ Bacteroides fragilis, ↑ Bifidobacterium | [199] |
| 13 elderly human (body weight = 58.6 ± 10.1 kg body weight not reported) |
3 weeks | 4 g/day | Mixed with chow | Once/day | 68.3 mg/kg/day | ↑ in number of Bifidobacterium species | [200] |
↑—Increase, ↓—Decrease, * unless indicated, the average adult human weight was estimated as 70 kg and the average rat weight was estimated to be 280 g.