Table 3.

Effects of two-dimensional graphene-based nanomaterials on plants.

GNMs	Plant (Cultivation Medium)	Dose of GNMs	Effects	Refs.
GO, rGO, GOQDs	Capsicum annuum; soil	0.25–25 mg/kg	↓ intercellular CO2 ↓ Ca content ↓ transpiration rate ↓ stomatal conductance	[204]
GO	Triticum aestivum; hydroponics + 10 or 20 mg/L As3+ or As5+	10 mg/L	↑ oxidative stress ↑ damage in root plasma membranes ↓ complexation of As with glutathione ↓ macro-and micro-nutrient content	[205]
glycine betaine−GO	Ocimum basilicum; hydroponics+ 50 and 100 mM NaCl	50, 100 mg/L	↑ agronomic characteristics ↑ contents of Chl, phenols, and proline ↑ membrane stability ↑ activities of antioxidant enzymes ↓ MDA and H2O2 content	[206]
COOH−GQDsOH−GQDs	Lactuca sativa; hydroponics	50 mg/L	↓ root and shoot d.w. ↓ photosynthesis ↓ mineral nutrition ↑ ROS modulation of levels of phytohormones	[207]
GO	Triticum aestivum; hydroponics	200–800 mg/L	↓ net NO3− influx in roots ↓ root length ↓ number of lateral roots ↓ root uptake area ↓ respiration ↑ DNA damage ↓ expression of nitrate transporters in roots	[208]
GO	Oryza sativa; hydroponics	100, 250 mg/L	↓ shoot growth ↓ shoot biomass ↑ Fe translocation and accumulation ↑ acidification of medium downregulation of coumarins and flavonoids	[209]
Ag−GO	Raphanus sativus Cucumis sativus Medicago sativa R. sativus, M. sativa, C. sativus; seed treatment+cultivation on filter paper	0.2–1.6 g/L 0.2 g/L 0.8 g/L 0.2–1.6 mg/L 0.2–1.6 mg/L	↑ shoot growth ↑ root growth ↓ root growth ↓ root growth ↑ H2O2 production	[210]
GO	Oryza sativa (Cd-stressed); soil	400 mg/L	↓ transcript levels of Cd transporters ↓ net Cd influx of rice roots ↓ robustness of plants ↓ plant growth	[211]
proline-GO	Dracocephalum moldavica; hydroponics + 50 and 100 mM NaCl	50,100 mg/L	↑ morphological parameters ↑ contents of Chl and proline ↑ Chl index (SPAD) ↑ membrane stability index ↑ antioxidant enzymes activities ↑ EO secondary metabolites ↓ MDA and H2O2 content	[212]
GO	Lactuca sativa; hydroponics with 2 mg/L Cd; foliar spraying	30 mg/L	↑ total length, surface area, average diameter, and hair number of roots ↑ plant growth ↑ soluble sugar, protein, and vitamin C content ↓ Cd accumulation in plant organs ↑ plant tolerance to Cd	[213]
GO	Cd-stressed Lactuca sativa; hydroponics	30 mg/L	↑ net photosynthetic rates ↑ stomatal conductance ↑ transpiration rates ↑ Chl content ↑ photochemical efficiency of PS II ↑ PET rates ↑ Rubisco levels ↑ plant biomass ↓ contents of O2·−, H2O2 and MDA ↓ activities of antioxidant enzymes	[214]
GO	Betula pubescens; Murashige and Skoog nutrient medium	1.5, 3 μg/L 15 μg/L 1.5–15 μg/L	↑ shoot length ↑ number of leaves ↑ photosynthetic and CAT activity ↓ height of shoots ↓ number of stomata	[215]
GR	Solanum lycopersicum; foliar spraying	10–1000 mg/L	↑ contents of phenols, flavonoids, ascorbic acid, and glutathione ↑ contents of photosynthetic pigments and proteins ↑ activities of APX, CAT, glutathione peroxidase and PAL	[216]
GO	Plantago major; callus, 1/2 MS medium + drought stress	800 g/L	↓ growth rate and osmotic potential ↓ proline content ↑ dry matter and H2O2 ↑ TPC and TFC	[217]
GO	Lepidium sativum; callus	300 mg/L	↑ TPC and TFC ↑ PAL activity ↑ DPPH activity ↑ callus fresh weight	[218]
GO	Cd-stressed Lemna minor (50 μM CdCl2); Datko liquid medium	100 mg/L	↑ plant growth ↑ Cd content in fronds and roots up-regulation of 4471 genes down-regulation of 3230 genes	[219]
GO	Cd-stressed Corchorus olitorius; hydroponics	5 mg/L 20 mg/L	↑ plant growth ↑ activities of antioxidant enzymes ↑ Cd uptake by plants ↑ Cd tolerance of plants ↓ oxidative stress ↓ plant growth ↓ Cd uptake ↑ oxidative stress	[220]
AgNPs-GR	Stevia rebaudiana; soil	40 mM 40, 60 mM	↑ Chl content and increased ↑ contents of soluble sugars, flavonoids, phenols and proteins ↑ contents of stevioside and rebaudioside	[221]
GR	Solanum lycopersicum (priming)	10–100 mg/L	↑ contents of Chl, vitamin C, β-carotene, phenols, flavonoids, and H2O2 ↑ activities of PAL), APX, glutathione peroxidase (GPX), SOD, and CAT	[222]
GR	Zea mays; soil	50 mg/L	↑ root length, root volume, number of root tips, and forks upregulated expression of plant hormone signal transduction, nitrogen and potassium metabolism, and secondary metabolism in roots	[223]
GO	Solanum lycopersicum; Murashige and Skoog medium	50, 100 mg/L	↑ shoot/stem growth ↑ biomass ↑ surface area of root tips and hairs ↑ expression of root development-related genes ↑ root auxin and number of fruits accelerated fruit ripening	[224]
GQDs	Vigna radiata Solanum lycopersicum S. lycopersicum V. radiata; hydroponics	250–1250 mg/L 250–500 mg/L 1000–1500 mg/L	↑ Chl content ↑ Chl content ↑ contents of H2O2, MDA, proline, GSH ↑ glutathione reductase and CAT activities	[225]