Table 3. Studies evaluating substance use or SUD interventions and programs.

Author, Year	Study design	Study objective	Sample size	Name of intervention/ program	Intervention delivered by	Outcomes and measures	Main Findings
Individual-level interventions for harmful alcohol use:
Mackenzie et al. 2009 [38]	Mixed methods	Evaluate feasibility of an alcohol screening and brief intervention for adult clients attending HIV VCT centres	Intervention group: 456 Comparison group: 602	5–10 minute brief intervention.	Trained VCT service providers	Acceptability Change in AUDIT scores Proportion of respondents screened for alcohol use and offered feedback	Intervention feasible and acceptable
Papas et al. 2010 [40]	Mixed methods	Cultural adaptation and pilot testing of CBT for alcohol use among HIV-infected outpatients	Focus group 1; 8 Focus group 2; 27	6 sessions of CBT delivered by non-professionals	Paraprofessionals	Treatment attendance Treatment acceptability, -- Alcohol use assessment using the TLFB method	Culturally adapted CBT was feasible, acceptable, and demonstrated preliminary efficacy
Papas et al. 2011 [175]	RCT	Efficacy of CBT for HIV-infected outpatients with hazardous/ binge drinking alcohol	75	6 weekly CBT sessions Control: Usual care	Paraprofessionals	Percent drinking days and mean drinks per drinking days measured using the TLFB method	CBT efficacious
Harder et al. 2020 [94]	RCT	To test the effectiveness of a MI intervention using the mobile phone among adults with alcohol use problems.	Intervention group: 89 Control group 1: 65 Control group 2: 76	Mobile MI–single session MI delivered via mobile phone call upon enrolment Control 1: in-person MI Control 2: delayed mobile MI	Three clinicians with Master’s degree in nursing, doctoral degree in clinical psychology and a medical degree	Change in AUDIT-C scores	AUDIT-C scores significantly higher for waiting-list controls after 1 month of no intervention versus mobile MI 1 month after intervention. no difference between in-person and mobile MI at 1 month
Moscoe et al. 2019 [141]	RCT	To evaluate the effect of prize-linked savings accounts on men’s expenditure on alcohol use and risky sexual behaviors	Intervention: group: 152 Control group: 148	Intervention: Reward for saving any amount in the bank Control: No reward standard interest	-	Whether a participant saved any money in the bank account during the study period; total amount saved in the bank account; expenditures on alcohol, gambling, and transactional sex.	The intervention did not have a significant effect on alcohol, gambling, and transactional sex expenditures.
Giusto et al. 2020 [90]	Non-concurrent multiple baseline design	To evaluate the preliminary efficacy of an intervention aimed at reducing men’s alcohol use and improving family outcomes	9	5 session brief intervention combining behavioral activation, MI and gender norm transformative strategies Control: None	Trained lay counselors	Changes in daily alcohol use (TLFB) Changes in PHQ-9 scores Changes in family-oriented behavior	Intervention showed preliminary efficacy for addressing alcohol use and family-related problems
L’Engle et al. 2014 [127]	RCT	Efficacy of a brief intervention for harmful alcohol use for female sex workers	Intervention group: 410 Control group: 408	Intervention group: 6 counselling sessions based on WHO Brief Intervention for alcohol use Control: 6 sessions Nutritional counselling	Trained nurses	Difference in AUDIT scores and laboratory STI results between intervention and control groups	Intervention efficacious in reducing alcohol use and risky sexual behavior.
Parcesepe et al. 2016 [178]	RCT	To document the impact of an alcohol harm reduction intervention on IPV and engagement in sex work among FSWs	Intervention group: 410 Control group: 408	Intervention: 6 sessions of contextualized WHO Brief Intervention Control: 6 sessions of non-alcohol related nutrition intervention	Trained nurses	Differences in interpersonal violence and engagement in sex work between intervention and control groups	Intervention resulted in reduction in IPV, reduction in sexual partners and reduction in participation in sex work
Takahashi et al. 2018 [193]	3-arm quasi experimental	To assess the effectiveness of community-based alcohol brief intervention with and without motivational talks by former drinkers, in reducing harmful and hazardous alcohol use	Control group: 52 Intervention group 1: 52 Intervention group 2: 57	Intervention 1: 3 sessions brief intervention based on FRAMES model Intervention 2: 3 sessions BI plus group Motivational talks Control: general health information on alcohol consumption.	Trained community-health workers	Differences in the mean AUDIT scores between the control group and each of the intervention groups at 1, 3 and 6 months,	Greater reduction in adjusted mean AUDIT scores in intervention groups compared to controls
Individual-level interventions for khat use
Widmann et al. 2017 [202]	RCT	To evaluate impact of a brief intervention for khat use on comorbid psychopathology (depression, PTSD, khat induced psychotic symptoms) and everyday functioning	Intervention group: 161 Control group: 169	Intervention: 3 sessions Screening and Brief Intervention Control: Assessments for comorbidity and SBI after 2 months	Trained college graduates	Differences in PHQ-9; Post-traumatic diagnostic Scale, ASSIST and everyday functioning scores	Intervention reduced khat use and increased functioning levels but had no benefit for comorbidity symptoms
Individual-level interventions for any substance use
Muriungi & Ndetei 2013 [145]	RCT	Effectiveness of psycho-education on depression, hopelessness, suicidality, anxiety and substance use among college students	Intervention group: 1,181 Control group: 1,926	4 Psycho education sessions Control: No intervention	Clinical psychologist	Differences in BDI, BHS, BSIS, BAI, ASSIST scores between intervention and control group	Psycho-education was effective in reducing the severity of depression symptoms, hopelessness, suicidality, anxiety and risk of substance abuse at 6 months.
Programs
Methadone programs
Rhodes 2018 [62]	Qualitative	To evaluate perceptions of persons receiving methadone as regards benefits of the methadone programs	30	Methadone programs	-	Perceptions on the recovery potential of methadone programs	Methadone perceived as having recovery potential.
Rhodes et. al 2015 [61]	Qualitative methods and mathematical modeling	To document the HIV prevention impact of Opioid Substitution Therapy with methadone form the perspective of PWID use	109	Opioid substitution therapy with methadone	-	Perceptions of PWID on promise of methadone Projected HIV effects of methadone	Methadone could be an important component of any intervention package aiming to reduce HIV transmission among PWID in Kenya.
Needle syringe programs
Ndimbii et al. 2015 [56]	Qualitative	To explore the impact of needle and syringe programs on needle and syringe sharing among PWID use	109	Needle and syringe programs	-	Needle and syringe sharing practices before and after needle and syringe programs	Introduction of needle and syringe programs led to significant reductions in needle and syringe sharing.
Tobacco cessation programs
Gichuki et al. 2016 [89]	Cross-sectional	To determine the smoking cessation practices of healthcare providers working in public health facilities; training received and barriers to provision of interventions	400	Smoking cessation practices	-	Smoking cessation practices; training received; barriers to practice	Practice of smoking cessation interventions was sub-optimal; insufficient training was reported as an important barrier
Substance use out-patient programs
Deveau et al. 2010 [84]	Cross-sectional	Evaluate utilization of out-patient addiction services at 4 community-based clinics	1,847	Addiction out-patient treatment services	-	Number of clients utilizing services over a 4-year period Abstinence rates	Number of clients participating in treatment services increased from 35 to 479 over the 4-year period 42% reported abstinence from substance use over a 0-36-month period
Population level-interventions for tobacco use
Perl et al. 2015 [183]	Mixed methods	An assessment of effectiveness and ease of adaptation of anti-tobacco adverts developed in HICs from the perspective of adult smokers and non-smokers	1078	Radio and TV anti-tobacco adverts	-	Ratings of effectiveness and ease of adaptation of anti-tobacco ads	Adverts developed in High Income Countries are viable in tobacco control in Africa
Population level-interventions for alcohol use
Muturi et al. 2016 [55]	Qualitative	To explore community perspectives on alcohol abuse prevention strategies in rural Kenya	60	Alcohol abuse prevention strategies	-	Perspectives on alcohol abuse prevention strategies in rural Kenya	Rural communities viewed alcohol abuse prevention interventions as ineffective and messages as unpersuasive in changing this high-risk behavior.