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. 2021 Mar 12;1159:338384. doi: 10.1016/j.aca.2021.338384

Table 2.

Label-free electrochemical immunosensor for virus detection.

Virus Target Application Electrode Modifier Biorecognition element Immobilization Technique Redox probe LOD Linear range Incubation time Response time Reference
Chikungunya virus CHIKV-nsP3 antigena Human serum samples Au SAM-MUA, MH anti-CHIKV-nsP3 Covalent, EDC/NHS coupling EIS [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- 8 ng mL−1 25 ng m−1-1 μg mL−1 90 min – [144]
Dengue virus DENV-NS1 antigena Human serum samples SPCE BSA anti-DENV-NS1 Covalent, EDC/NHS coupling EIS [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- 0.3 ng mL−1 1–200 ng mL−1 60 min – [271]
DENV-NS1 antigena Human serum samples ITO SP:TMAP:PPD/AuNPs/PPD anti-DENV-NS1 Covalent, EDC/NHS coupling DPV [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- 5 ng mL−1 5–4000 ng mL−1 45 min – [272]
anti-DENV-NS1b Bovine blood plasma samples GCE pp-NHS/CNT DENV2- NS1 Covalent, NHS coupling EIS [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- 10−12 g mL−1 in PBS and plasma 10−13-10−5 g mL−1 in PBS, 10−11-10−5 in plasma 30 min – [273]
DENV2-NS1 antigena – Au SAM-MUA DGV BP1 Covalent, EDC/NHS coupling SWV [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- 1.49 μg mL−1 – 60 min – [147]
DENV-NS1 antigena Human serum samples SPCE PS/DA NS1 protein MIP Molecular imprinting EIS [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- 0.3 ng mL−1 (1–200 ng mL−1 – – [141]
DENV-NS1 antigena Human sera samples ITO MoS2/AuNP/ITO anti-DENV-NS1 Covalent, EDC/NHS coupling EIS [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- 1.67 ng mL−1 in PBS, 1.19 ng mL−1 in human sera 102–108 ng mL−1 25 min – [274]
anti-DENV-NS1b Clinical human serum samples SPE polymeric films from 4-APA DENV-NS1 protein antigen Adsorption EIS [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- – – 20 min – [275]
DENV-NS1 antigena Commercial human serum Au SAM-PEG-thiol-11Fc anti-DENV-NS1 Covalent, EDC/NHS coupling ECS/EIA Ferrocene ECS: 340 pg mL−1 in PBS and 1200 pg mL−1 in diluted serum
EIA: 220 pg mL−1 in PBS and 611 pg mL−1 in diluted serum		 ECS: 1–5000 ng mL−1 in PBS and 5–1000 ng mL−1 in diluted serum
EIA: 1–5000 ng mL−1 in PBS and 1–1000 ng mL−1 in diluted serum		 30 min 4 min (ECS)
<4s (EIA)		 [117]
anti-DENV-NS1b Commercial human serum Au SAM-PEG-thiol-11Fc DENV-NS1 protein antigen Covalent, EDC/NHS coupling ECS/EIA Ferrocene ECS: 231 pg mL−1 in PBS and 6100 pg mL−1 in diluted serum
EIA: 393 pg mL−1 in PBS and 9500 pg mL−1 in diluted serum		 ECS and EIA: 1-1000 mL−1 in PBS and, 10–1000 ng mL−1 in diluted serum 30 min 4 min (ECS)
<4s (EIA)		 [117]
DENV-NS1 antigena PBS and neat serum biological samples Au SAM-16-MDHDA-11-FcC anti-DENV-NS1 Covalent, EDC/NHS coupling ECS Ferrocene 0.2 ng mL−1 in PBS and 0.5 ng mL−1 in neat serum 5–1000 ng mL−1 in PBS and neat serum 30 min – [222]
DENV-NS1 antigena PBS and neat serum biological samples Au SAM-MUA, 6COH anti-DENV-NS1 Covalent, EDC/NHS coupling EIS [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- 3 ng mL−1 in PBS and 30 ng mL−1 in neat serum 10–2000 ng mL−1 in PBS and 10–1000 ng mL−1 in neat serum 30 min – [222]
DENV-NS1 antigena Human serum samples SPCE GO-Ru(II)/CS anti-DENV-NS1 Protein-G affinity interaction Amperometry Ru(II) 0.38 ng mL−1 1–10 ng mL−1 20 min <1 min [152]
Hepatitis B virus HBsAga – SPCE BSA anti-HBs Covalent, EDC/NHS coupling EIS [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- 2.1 ng mL−1 5–3000 ng mL−1 45 min – [142]
anti-HBcb – GCE HAc–NH2-CNT HBcAg Covalent, EDC/NHS coupling EIS [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- 0.03 ng mL−1 1–6 ng mL−1 20 min – [131]
HBsAga Human serum samples Au GO/Fc-CS/AuNPs anti-HBs antibodies Adsorption DPV Fc-CS 0.1 ng mL−1 0.1 ng mL−1-350 ng mL−1 15 min – [153]
HBsAga Human serum samples SPE GO/Fe3O4/PB@AuNPs anti-HBs antibodies Adsorption DPV PB 0.00016 ng mL−1 0.5 pg mL−1-200 ng mL−1 40 min – [151]
anti-HBcb Human serum samples Au PTy–COOH–CNT HBcAg Covalent, EDC/NHS coupling SWV PTy 0.89 ng mL−1 1.0–5.0 ng mL−1 15 min – [155]
Hepatitis C virus HCV antigena – Glass substrate, WE and CE: Au; RE: Ag AuNP/ZnONR anti-HCV Covalent, GA coupling CV [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- 0.25 μg μL−1 – – – [143]
HCV antigena Human serum samples GCE AgNPs/GQD-SH anti-HCV Adsorption DPV Riboflavin 3 fg mL−1 0.05 pg mL−1-60 ng mL mL-1 30 min – [148]
HCV antigena Human serum samples GCE V2O5 nanobelts anti-HCV Adsorption DPV Riboflavin 1.3 fg mL−1 10 fg mL−1-100 ng mL−1 35 min – [149]
Human immune deficiency virus HIV-p24a Human serum samples GCE MIPs/MWCNTs HIV-p24 MIP Covalent, GA coupling EIS [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- 0.083 pg cm−3 1.0 × 10−4-2 ng cm−3 10 min – [276]
Influenza A virus H1N1 antigenc Saliva samples ITO/glass TrGO anti-H1N1 Covalent, PBSE linker EIS [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- 26.04 PFU mL−1 in PBS and 33.11 PFU mL−1 in saliva – – – [139]
HA proteins of H5N1 and H1N1 antigensa – Dual SPCE GO-MB/CS anti-H5N1-HA and anti-H1N1-HA Protein-A affinity interaction DPV MB 9.4 pmol L−1 H1 N1, 8.3 pmol L−1 H5N1 25–500 pmol L−1 30 min <1 min [150]
H1N1 virus antigenc – Au microelectrode CA/rGO anti-H1N1 Covalent, EDC/NHS coupling Amperometry [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- 0.5 PFU mL−1 1-104 PFU mL−1 Flow Flow [277]
Japanese encephalitis virus JEV antigenc Human serum samples SPCE CNPs anti-JEV Covalent, EDC/NHS coupling SWV [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- 2 ng mL−1 5–20 ng mL−1 20 min – [278]
JEV antigenc Healthy mouse serum Pt microelectrodes PAni/MWCNTs anti-JEV Covalent, EDC/NHS coupling Amperometry PAni 2 ng mL−1 2–250 ng mL−1 45 min 13 s [154]
Measles virus Anti-measles virusb – GCE Unmodified GCE measles virus antigen Adsorption LSV [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- 1.5 × 10−5 IU mL−−1 0.3–3 × 10−4 IU mL−1 20 min [140]
Anti-measles virusb – GCE Functionalized GCE Measles virus antigen Covalent, GA coupling LSV [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- 9.3 × 10–6 IU mL--1 0.3–3 × 10−5 IU mL−1 10 min – [140]
Newcastle Disease Virus NDV antigenc – Au Protein A IgY Covalent, GA coupling CV [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- 100.95 EID50 mL−1 106-102 EID50 mL−1 60 min – [145]
NDV antigenc – Au SAM-TGA IgY Covalent, DDC/NHS coupling CV [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- 100.67 EID50 mL−1 106-102 EID50 mL−1 60 min – [145]
Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus PEDV antigenc Pig manure samples GCE AuNP/MoS2/rGO PEDV-2C11 antibodies Adsorption EIS [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- – 82.5–1.65 × 104 TCID50 mL−1 140 min – [138]
Rotaviruses rotaviruses (RVs), rotavirus antigenc – GCE AuNPs/SAM-CA Rotavirus antibodies Covalent, GA coupling EIS [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- 2.3 PFU mL−1 4.6–4.6 × 105 PFU mL−1 60 min 55 min [279]
Zika virus ZIKV-NS1 antigena Human urine samples Au (WE, PCB) ZnO nanostructures anti-ZIKV-NS1 Adsorption CV [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- 1.00 pg mL−1 0.1–100 ng mL−1 60 min – [146]
ZIKV-envelop protein antigena – IDE-Au SAM-DTSP Zev-Abs Adsorption EIS [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- 10 pmol L−1 10 pmol L−1-1 nmol L−1 30 min 40 min [280]

Type of target:a viral protein, b antibody, c whole virus. CHIKV-nsP3 antigen: chikungunya virus non-structural protein antigen, anti-CHIKV-nsP3: anti chikungunya virus non-structural protein antibody. SAM: self-assembled monolayer, MUA: 11-mercaptoundecanoic acid, MH: 6-mercapto-1-hexanol, EDC: 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide, NHS: N-Hydroxysuccinimide, EIS: electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, DENV-NS1 antigen: Dengue virus non-structural 1 protein antigen, anti-DENV-NS1: anti Dengue virus non-structural 1 protein monoclonal antibody, SPCE: screen-printed carbon electrode, BSA: bovine serum albumin, ITO: indium tin oxide, SP: 4-sulfophenyl, TMAP: 4-trimethylammoniophenyl, PPD:1,4-phenylenediamine, AuNPs: gold nanoparticles, DPV: differential pulse voltammetry, DENV2- NS1: recombinant protein NS1 Dengue Virus Type-2, GCE: glassy carbono electrode, pp-NHS (N-hydroxysuccinimido 11-(pyrrol-1-yl) undecanoate), CNT (carbono nanotube), DGV BP1: promising recognition peptide for DENV-2 NS1, SWV: square wave voltammetry, PS: polysulfone nanofibers, DA: dopamine, MIP: molecularly imprinted polymers, 4-APA: 4-aminophenylacetic acid, PEG-thiol: HS-C11-EG3-OCH2-COOH, EG = ethylene glycol, 11Fc: 11-(ferrocenyl)-undecanethiol, ECS: Electrochemical capacitance spectroscopy, EIA: Electrochemical immittance analysis, 16-MHDA: 16-mercaptohexadecanoic acid, 6COH: 6-mercapto-1-hexanol, HBsAg: hepatitis B surface antigen, anti-HBs: anti hepatitis B surface antibody, anti-HBc: anti hepatitis B core protein antibody, HBcAg: hepatitis B core protein antigen, HAc: hyaluronic acid, NH2-CNT: amino multi-walled carbon nanotubes, PB: Prussian blue, PTy: polytyramine, COOH-CNT: carboxylated multi-walled carbon nanotubes, GA: glutaraldheide, HCV antigen: hepatitis C virus antigen, anti-HCV: anti hepatitis C virus antibody, ZnONR: ZnO nanorods, GQD-SH: thiol graphene quantum dots, HIV-p24 antigen: human immunodeficiency virus p24, MWCNTs: multi-walled carbon nanotubes, H1N1 antigen: influenza virus H1N1 antigen, anti-H1N1: anti influenza virus H1N1 antibody, TrGO: thermally-decomposed rGO, PBSE: 1-pyrenebutanoic acid succinimidyl ester, HA proteins of H5N1 and H1N1 antigens: recombinant hemagglutinin influenza A virus H5N1 and H1N1, anti-H5N1-HA and anti-H1N1-HA: anti influenza-A hemagglutinin monoclonal H5N1 and H1N1 antibodies, GO: graphene oxide, MB: methylene blue, CS: chiosan, CA: cystamine, rGO: reduced graphene oxide, JEV antigen, anti-JEV:, CNPs: carbono nanoparticles, PAni: polyaniline, TGA: thioglycolic acid, IgY: chicken egg yolk antibodies against Newcastle disease virus, PEDV antigen: porcine epidemic diarrhea virus antigen, anti-PEDV: anti porcine epidemic diarrhea virus antibody, IDE-Au: interdigitated micro-electrode of gold, ZIKV-NS1: Zika virus NS1 protein antigen, anti-ZIKV-NS1: anti-Zika virus NS1 protein antbody, PCB: Printed Circuit Board (PCB), DTSP: dithiobis(succinimidyl propionate), ZIKV-envelop protein antigen: Zika-virus envelop protein antigen, Zev-Abs: ZIKV-envelop protein antibody.