Table 3.

Multilevel model results for negative relationship quality with parents after the Great Recession

Variables	Financial problems		Change in financial problems		Change in income
	Model 1a	Model 1b	Model 2a	Model 2b	Model 3a	Model 3b
Fixed effects
Intercept	0.71**	0.71**	0.54*	0.54*	0.47*	0.53*
Any financial problem (Baseline)	0.19	0.13	–	–	–	–
Total financial problemsa (Follow-up)	0.06*	0.06*	–	–	–	–
Change in financial problems (Ref = Never)
Onset	–	–	0.18	0.18	–	–
Stopped	–	–	0.37	0.38	–	–
Continued	–	–	0.38*	0.29	–	–
Chang in income (Ref = Higher)
Lower	–	–	–	–	0.30*	0.28†
Same	–	–	–	–	0.20	0.14
Negative relationship quality (Baseline)	0.53***	0.52***	0.54***	0.53***	0.55***	0.54***
Depressive symptomsb (Follow-up)	–	0.09	–	0.12†	–	0.12†
Offspring characteristics
Age	0.02	0.02	0.02	0.02	0.02	0.02
Female	– 0.02	– 0.02	– 0.02	– 0.02	0.00	– 0.02
Student	– 0.07	– 0.08	– 0.05	– 0.07	– 0.10	– 0.11
Re/married	0.07	0.08	0.07	0.09	0.12	0.13
Having at least one child	– 0.18	– 0.15	– 0.20	– 0.16	– 0.18	– 0.14
Racial/ethnic minority	– 0.09	– 0.06	– 0.09	– 0.05	– 0.02	0.00
Working for pay	0.05	0.07	0.02	0.02	0.08	0.09
Parent characteristics
Female	0.15†	0.15*	0.15†	0.16†	0.15†	0.15†
Coresiding	0.34*	0.32*	0.35*	0.31†	0.39*	0.35*
Random effects
Intercept Variance (level 2: offspring)	0.14**	0.13*	0.14**	0.14*	0.14*	0.13*
Residual Varirance	0.45***	0.46***	0.46***	0.46***	0.45***	0.46***
− 2 Log Likelihood	741.46	743.21	726.70	727.19	726.62	727.03

Established adult offspring N = 170

Parent–child tie N = 316

Ref reference category

^†p < .10, *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001

^aSum of 6 financial problems (1 = yes and 0 = no)

^bMean scores of 5 items (rated from 1 = not at all to 5 = extremely)