Table 1.

Critical evidence of current environmental negative changes

Model	Reference	Environmental factor	Negative effect in the mother during gestation and lactation	Offspring developmental programming
Smoke exposure during gestation and lactation	[206, 207]	Smoke	Negative effect on maternal cardiovascular health during early pregnancy and early onset preeclampsia	•Negative effects in birth weight •Fetal suffering •Affect cognitive development
Heavy metal exposure	[208]	Cadmium exposure by traffic	Higher concentrations of cadmium in cord blood	•Lower fetus development •Low birth weight (less than 2,500 g) •Significantly negative correlation between cord blood cadmium concentrations and IQ development
Pollution exposure	[209, 210]	Traffic air pollutants	Adverse reproductive outcomes Elevated risks for preeclampsia	•Increased risk of preterm birth and very preterm birth induced by particulate less than 2.5-10 μm in air pollution measured at ambient stations
Pollution exposure	[123, 211–216]	Traffic-related air pollution exposure in pregnancy	Mothers exposed to traffic during gestation, had babies with high risk to asthma in adult life Increase in oxidative stress and inflammation pathways in mothers at first-trimester	•Asthma development •Children experiment domestic-violence by maternal stress •Damage in maternal metabolism markers by air pollution may cause adverse pregnancy and birth outcomes •Higher risk of small gestational age and reduce birth weight
Pollution exposure	[217]	Traffic air pollutants	Increased cadmium concentrations in breast milk on Saudi mothers from Riyadh and AI-Ehssa region	•The estimated weekly intakes of cadmium and mercury of breast-fed infants in this study were higher than the Provisional Tolerance Weekly Intake (PTWI) recommended by FAO/WHO
Pollution exposure	[218]	Heavy metal by smoke traffic	Increased mercury and lead in breast-milk	•Adverse effects on the central nervous system in infants
Pollution exposure	[219]	Perinatal exposure to traffic- related air pollution	Child's first year of life	•Development of allergies and atopy in offspring
Organic pollution	[220]	Persistent organic pollutants POPs Gestation and lactation	Changes in gene expression	•Offspring show less cognitive knowledge alteration of the circadian cycle, increased in sedentary life •Changes of brain genes expression as Cd47, Il1α, Per1 and Clock among others
Exposure to toxic compounds	[221]	Exposure to Fl− Gestation and lactation	Increase I Fl− levels Oxide-redox imbalance	•Reduction of the cognitive function •Increases in brain oxidative stress, NO2- and lipoperoxidation, and changes in gene expression in brain
Exposure to bisphenol	[222]	Exposure to bisphenols Polybrominated and mixed halogenated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans (PBDD/Fs)	Increase of biphenols, diaoxine and furanes in maternal milk	•Low brain development and delay in development
Stress during gestation and lactation	[223,224]	Psychosocial stress during gestation	Increased cortisol and glucocorticoid hormone	•Offspring obesity, physical and mental health outcomes •Negative effects on neuroendocrine functions that are linked to food intake, obesity, and energy expenditure in both animals and humans
Maternal stress	[129,225–231]	Maternal psychosocial stress in pregnancy	During early pregnancy resulted in pregnancy loss Mothers increases in serum levels pro-inflammatory cytokines in late pregnancy Increased cortisol, glucocorticoid hormone levels Negative effects in maternal physiology and immune function Increased placenta weight at birth Increased risk of pregnancy complications such as preeclampsia and premature labor	•Negative effect on the telomere biology system development already present at birth, reflected by the LTL (leukocyte telomere length) •Increased anxiety behavior •Adverse birth outcomes
Work stress	[232–235]	Work-related psychologic stress during pregnancy	Increased risk of preeclampsia for women presented in high-stress jobs, compared to low stress job or non-working women	•Risk of preterm delivery, low birth weight infant
Post-natal stress	[236]	Return to work timing, job stress, and workplace support affected the lactation period	Increased of fatigue levels and mental, physical symptoms, breast soreness Also, stressed mothers have an increase of cesarean section, orepisiotomy surgery compared with non- stressed mothers who had vaginal delivery	•Negative effects in breastfeeding
Overcrowding during gestation and lactation	[237]	Overcrowding	Respiratory and digestive diseases due to the low quality of household materials	•Low academic performance •Frequent accidents due to small space in the home
Poverty stress	[238]	Impoverished conditions during gestation	Negative effects on mother during gestation and lactation	•Health adverse effects
Noise exposure	[239,240]	Noise during gestation	Poor sleep quality, irritability, low neonatal weight, an induced nerve response occurs in the fetus that can lead to changes in blood pressure and increases in cardiovascular flow	•Stress, altered the ability to concentrate, sleep, performance, and altered psychological behaviors, hearing problems
High temperature exposure	[241]	High ambient temperature	Premature birth	•No determinate
Perinatal exposure to Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PDBEs)	[242]	Autism induced by PDBEs exposure gestation and lactation	No determinate	•Lack of social behavior •Reduction of dendrites number and size •Low brain development
Social stress	[243]	Anxiety induced by Covid-19 pandemic in lactating women	Women increased the risk to develop mild to severe depression or anxiety	•No determinate
Nutritional habits	[244]	Cafeteria diet in pregnancy and lactation	Mother depressive like behavior at 60 post natal day	•Microstructural changes in the brain •Increased expression of GluR1, GluR2 synaptic markers •Less activity
Nutritional habits	[245]	Lactating women subjects to different stressors	Stress circumstances dictate food election during lactation only 37.4% of women consumed vegetables and fruits associated with less stress levels and regular BMI	•No determinate
Depression	[246]	Maternal depression lack of parental care during lactation	Mother stress and anxiety behavior modification in future generations	•Offspring had 18 down regulated brain genes •Changes were associated with stress dependent pathways, inflammation and behavior •Changes were detected in F2 generation