TABLE 3.
Summary of recently developed NPs to overcome the obstacles of current photodynamic therapy in tumor.
| Obstacles to overcome | NP type | Name | Strategy | Year |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| PSs delivery | DNA-modified NPs | Apt-DNA-Au nanomachines (Yu et al., 2021) | Tumor-associated TK1 mRNA-responsive PSs release and survivin targeting by antisense DNA | 2021 |
| DNA-modified NPs | TCPP-gDNA-Au/PLNP (Su et al., 2021) | Nucleolin targeting by AS1411 aptamer | 2021 | |
| DNA-modified NPs | Au/Pd ONP-DNA nanomachine (Cai et al., 2021a) | Using the primary marker miRNA-21 and two auxiliary markers miRNA-224 and TK-1 mRNA to improve the accuracy of tumor identification | 2021 | |
| DNA-modified NPs | Label-rcDNA-AuG (Zhang et al., 2021b) | Recognition of cancer cells by miR-21 | 2021 | |
| Biotin-modified NPs | BT@Au-NPs (He et al., 2021b) | Movement to cellular sites and efficient binding sites in tumor cell lines by biotin | 2021 | |
| AuNRs-grafted RGD | HB-AuNRs@cRGD (Liu et al., 2021f) | Binding of RGD to integrin avb3 in tumor cells and tumor neovascular endothelial cells | 2021 | |
| Au nanoshells | 40/20 core radius/shell thickness optimized gold nanoshell (Farooq and de Araujo, 2021) | Optimization of nanoshells structure (silica core radius and gold shell thickness) to increase the singlet oxygen production | 2021 | |
| Heterometallic colloids | (L' = I−, CH3COO−) Mo6Au2 colloids (Faizullin et al., 2021) | Affecting NPs cytotoxicity, cellular internalization, and PDT activity by modulating the order of supramolecular stacking by Mo6-Au2 | 2021 | |
| Polymer-coated AuNRs | Au-MB-PEG NPs (Liu et al., 2021g) | Response to highly expressed HOCl in the tumor region via FDOCl-24 | 2021 | |
| Cu-based Fenton reagents | Cu-LDH/HMME@Lips (Wu et al., 2021) | Active infiltration of cancer cells by Cu-LDH for deep tumor therapy. Extended circulatory residence time by liposome encapsulation | 2021 | |
| Hollow mesoporous silica supported UCNPs | UCNP/RB@mSiO2-NH (Chen et al., 2021a) | “One treatment, multiple irradiation” PDT strategy for efficient nuclear-targeted PDT | 2021 | |
| Metal-organic frameworks | Zn (II)-PPIX/G-quadruplex VEGF aptamer-tetrahedra structures (Zhang et al., 2021c) | Release of PSs in response to VEGF via VEGF-aptamer-functionalized DNA tetrahedra | 2021 | |
| Nanoliposomes | Fru-Bio-Lip (Li et al., 2021b) | Increased total number of liposomes bound to cancer cells by dual-ligand modification of fructose and Bt | 2021 | |
| Fluorinated dendrimer | APFHG (Zhu et al., 2021a) | EGFR-TKI specifically recognizes EGFR-positive NSCLC cells and releases Gef and Hp in response to a hypoxic acidic microenvironment | 2021 | |
| Polyamidoamine Dendrimers | G5MEK7C(n)-ICG (Cui et al., 2021) | p (EK) converts to positive charge in response to acidic TME and interacts more readily with tumor cell membranes | 2021 | |
| Light delivery | Bimetallic NPs | Au-BiGSH@IR808 (Jia et al., 2021) | Modified by IR808 fuel for higher NIR photon capture capability | 2021 |
| Ultra-thin two-dimensional nanosheets | 4-layer O-Ti7O13 nanosheets (Dai et al., 2021a) | X-ray irradiation-induced ROS generation by OTi7O13 nanosheets and chemotherapy mediated by DOX | 2021 | |
| Ti-based targeting agent | B-TiO2@SiO2-HA (Guo et al., 2021) | Simultaneous generation of ROS and hyperthermia under NIR-II laser irradiation and full spectral response to light stimulation obtained by B-TiO2 | 2021 | |
| Semiconductor metal oxide | SnO2-x@SiO2-HA (Gao et al., 2021a) | SnO2-x-mediated full-spectrum response target-specific synergistic PDT/PTT | 2021 | |
| Block copolymer | Plu-IR780-chit-FA (Potara et al., 2021) | PTT/PDT synergistic therapy under NIR via IR780 | 2021 | |
| UCNP | UCNP/RB, Ce6 (Pham et al., 2021) | Dual PSs have higher PDT efficiency than single PS | 2021 | |
| New PSs | Ru complex | Ru-I (He et al., 2021c) | Red-Light-Responsive Ru Complex PSs for lysosome localization PDT | 2021 |
| Amphiphilic polymer | DSPE-PEG2000-Folic encapsulated Ru (II) polypyridine complex (Karges et al., 2021) | Enhanced tumor cell selectivity by DSPE-PEG2000-Folic | 2021 | |
| Ru (II) complex | Ru (II) complex-based bioorthogonal two-photon PSs (Lin et al., 2021a) | Anti-tumor effects by specifically binding to cancer cell membranes and inducing cell membrane damage | 2021 | |
| Ir compounds | Ir (III) complexes (Xiao et al., 2021) | Different degrees of oxygen quenching via Ir (III) complexes | 2021 | |
| Bifunctional Ir (III) complexes | 4 ([Ir(Bzq)2 (dpa-acr)]+ (Redrado et al., 2021) | Targeted mitochondrial and cellular imaging via organic chromophores and Ir (III) complexes | 2021 | |
| Superparamagnetic Fe3O4 NPs | E-NP (Sengupta et al., 2022) | E-NP show immunoprotective and anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting MPO and down-regulating NO | 2022 | |
| Ru (II) polypyridine complexes | Ru-g-C3N4 (Sengupta et al., 2022) | Oxygen self-sufficient PSs generated by grafting metal complexes onto g-C3N4 | 2021 | |
| Graphitic carbon nitride | g-C3N5NSs (Liu et al., 2021h) | Due to the addition of nitrogen-rich triazole groups, the visible light utilization and photocatalytic activity of g-C3N5NSs are higher than those of g-C3N4NSs | 2021 | |
| nanoheterostructures | Ni3S2/Cu1.8S@HA (Sang et al., 2021) | Production of ROS and O2 by Ni3S2/Cu1.8S | 2021 | |
| BPQDs | BPQDs@PEI + RGD-PEG + DMMA (Liu et al., 2021i) | Enrichment of tumor targets through pH-responsive charge switching | 2021 | |
| 2D black phosphorus nanosheets | Cyan@BPNSs (Qi et al., 2021) | Continuous oxygen supply through cyanobacterial photosynthesis | 2021 | |
| Red/black phosphorus composite nanosheet | M-RP/BP@ZnFe2O4 (Kang et al., 2022) | ZnFe2O4 enhances the productivity of ROS through the Fenton reaction and can also induce apoptosis in MB-231 cells through oxidative stress | 2022 | |
| Carbon-based polymer dots | PPa-CPD (Sajjad et al., 2022) | PPa enhances the photocatalytic performance of photosensitizers via covalent and π-π interactions | 2021 | |
| Unfavorable TME | Hyaluronic acid-Bimetallic NPs | ToHAu@Pt-PEG-Ce6/HA (Bu et al., 2021) | Oxygen enrichment in tumor and PDT by Pt | 2021 |
| Bimetallic NPs | Au/Ag NR (Jin et al., 2021b) | Increases heat and ROS production by altering the amount of Ag+, triggering ICD in tumor cells | 2021 | |
| lateral nano-heterostructure | (Bi/BiOx)-based lateral nano-heterostructure (Qiu et al., 2021) | Oxygen-independent PDT using BiOx | 2021 | |
| Nanozyme | IrO2-Gox@HA NPs (Yuan et al., 2022a) | Enhancement of type II PDT by GOx and IrO2 NPs | 2022 | |
| ZGGO durable luminescent NPs | Mn-ZGGO (Ding et al., 2021b) | Oxygen-independent PDT using MnOx shell | 2021 | |
| Nanozyme | ICG@PEI-PBA-HA/CeO2 (Zeng et al., 2021) | CeO2 catalyzes H2O2 to O2 through Ce3+/Ce4+ cerium valence cycling | 2021 | |
| UCNPs | UCTM NPs (Cheng et al., 2021a) | Oxygen-enriching role of thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts in tumors and photodynamic therapy | 2021 | |
| UCNPs | CM@UCNP-Rb/PTD (Jin et al., 2021a) | PEG-TK-DOX releases DOX in response to ROS and prevention of tumor metastasis by CD73 antibody | 2021 | |
| MIPs modify UCNPs | MC540/MNPs@MIPs/UCNP (Lin et al., 2021b) | Using MIPs to target tumor cells and prevent PD-1/PD-L1 immune blockade | 2021 | |
| Molybdenum Carbide | Mo2C@N-Carbon-3@PEG (Hou et al., 2022) | Photocatalytic Oxygen Generation by Mo2C | 2022 | |
| Engineered bacteria | EB (Ding et al., 2021a) | Targeting anoxic TME and catalyzing H2O2 to produce O2 using engineered Escherichia coli | 2021 | |
| Metal-organic frameworks | UIO@Ca-Pt (Ren et al., 2021) | Increase intracellular oxygen content by endogenous oxygen through CaO2 and Pt | 2021 | |
| Nanoscale iron-based metal organic frameworks | MIL-101(Fe)@TCPP (Chen et al., 2021b) | Fenton reaction increases intracellular oxygen levels | 2021 | |
| Metal Organic Framework Nanosystems | NMOF@SF/TPZ (NST) (Yu et al., 2022) | Disturbed redox metabolism in tumor cells caused by GSH depletion and Fenton reaction oxygen enrichment | 2021 | |
| Metal-organic frameworks | Ag-AgCl@Au NMs (Liu et al., 2021j) | Au nanorods produces O2 through a photocatalytic reaction | 2021 | |
| Nanoliposomes | Ce6-SB3CT@Liposome (Lip-SC) (Liu et al., 2021a) | The released SB-3CT can effectively activate NK cells and enhance the immune system by inhibiting the shedding of soluble NKG2D ligands | 2021 | |
| Double nanozyme modified HMSN | HMSN@Au@MnO2-Fluorescein Derivative (HAMF) (Chen et al., 2021c) | Enhancement of intracellular oxygen level by catalytic reaction of MnO2 and Au NPs | 2021 | |
| Double nanozyme modified HMSN | AuNCs@mSiO2@MnO2 (Yin et al., 2021) | Acid-TME-responsive dual nanozyme-catalyzed reaction to enhance intracellular oxygen level via MnO2 nanosheets | 2021 | |
| Polyamidoamine Dendrimers | CCT-DPRS (Mindt et al., 2018) | CaF2NPs convert low-dose X-radiation to Wei-green light to excite Rb to generate ROS, while releasing SU to inhibit tumor angiogenesis | 2021 | |
| Hydrogels | OPeH (Liu et al., 2021b) | MnO2 NPs convert H2O2 to O2, which further promotes the generation of 1O2 from PpIX and improves the generation efficiency of 1O2 | 2021 | |
| Fluorinated polymer micelles | (PFFA)-Ce6 (Tseng et al., 2021) | Using perfluorocarbons to increase intracellular oxygen levels | 2021 | |
| Amphiphilic polymer micelles | MPEG-S-S-PCL-Por (MSLP) (Xia et al., 2021) | Amplifies oxidative stress in tumor cells by depleting GSH and producing ROS | 2021 | |
| Synergistic therapy | layered double hydroxides | ICG/CAC-LDH (Wang et al., 2021a) | Induces intracellular GSH depletion through redox reactions, and can also be decomposed to generate Cu+ and Ce3+, which stimulates Fenton-like reactions to generate OH | 2021 |
| Bimetallic NPs | Au1Bi1-SR NPs (He et al., 2021a) | The photothermal effect of NPs is enhanced by the introduction of Bi | 2021 | |
| Bifunctional micelles | Micelle-Ir (Liu et al., 2021c) | Promotion of singlet oxygen generation and photothermal effect via BODIPY-Ir | 2021 | |
| Nanozyme | MIP/Ce6 (Li et al., 2021a) | PTT by IrO2 and TME-responsive PDT by MnO2 | 2021 | |
| zeolitic imidazole framework-67 NPs | Co3S4-ICG (Jiang et al., 2021b) | Promoting Fenton reaction to generate ROS through PTT | 2021 | |
| Bovine serum albumin (BSA) NP | FeS2@SRF@BSA (Feng et al., 2021) | The combination of Fenton-like reaction and PDT enhanced ROS production and antitumor effect | 2021 | |
| Metal-Organic Framework | Zr-MOF@PPa/AF@PEG (Wang et al., 2021b) | Zr-MOF@PPA/AF@PEG take advantage of the PDT-induced hypoxia to activate HIF-1 inhibitor AF to enhance the anti-tumor effect and achieve the synergistic PDT- chemotherapy (PDT-CT) therapeutic effects | 2021 | |
| Metal-Organic Framework Core-Shell Hybrid Materials | Au@MOF-FA (Cai et al., 2021b) | Fe3O(OAc)6(H2O)3+-mediated Fenton reaction and Au nanorod-mediated PTT | 2021 | |
| Nanoliposomes | Lip(PTQ/GA/AIPH) (Dai et al., 2021b) | PTDT/PTT/PDT synergistic therapy via PTT, PTDT prodrug and GA | 2021 | |
| PEGylated MSNs | M(A)D@PI-PEG-RGD (Zhang et al., 2021d) | Synergistic treatment of chemotherapy, PTT and PDT by ICG and DOX | 2021 | |
| Phenylboronic acid modified dendrimers | P-NPs (Zhong et al., 2021a) | Synergistic chemophotodynamic therapy that releases PTX in response to high concentrations of glutathione and H2O2 in tumor cells increases intranuclear PSs through nuclear membrane disassembly | 2021 | |
| Hydrogels | DOX-CA4P@Gel (Zhong et al., 2021b) | The gel can be slowly degraded under acidic TME, and DOX and CA4P are released in different time sequences for tumor therapy | 2021 | |
| Polymer micelles | IR780/PTX/FHSV micelles (Yang et al., 2021a) | Release of PTX and IR780 in response to GSH for chemophototherapy | 2021 | |
| “ Sensing and Healing” nanoplatform | Bimetallic NPs | Au-AgNP-Ag-HM (Wang et al., 2021c) | The imaging of intracellular caspase-3 and ROS by DEVD and Au-Ag-HM differentiates cancer cells from normal cells | 2021 |
| Semiconducting polymer NPs | PSBTBT-Ce6@Rhod NPs (Bao et al., 2021) | PSBTBT NPs loaded with Rhodamine B and Ce6 for combined PTT/PDT therapy | 2021 |