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. 2022 Jun 1;10:875376. doi: 10.3389/fcell.2022.875376

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Copyright © 2022 Zhang, Wu, Cheng, Bai, Huang and Gao.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Origins and roles of EVs in CVDs. EVs can be released by cardiovascular system-related cells, such as cardiomyocytes, endothelial cells (ECs), fibroblasts, smooth muscle cells (SMCs), leukocytes, monocytes, and macrophages. EVs mimic the cardioprotective properties by stimulating cell proliferation, improving cardiac survival, activating cell autophagy, promoting angiogenesis, enhancing neovascularization, decreasing cell apoptosis, reducing tissue fibrosis, preventing inflammation, inhibiting cardiovascular remodeling, treating myocardial infarction, reducing oxidative stress levels, and affecting immune cell polarization.