Table. All Outcomes Used From 31 Studies Included in the Domain-Specific Meta-analysisa .
| Study | Outcomes used | Outcomes not used | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Overall | Subdomains | Outcome | Reason for not using | |
| Academics | ||||
| Bartels et al,27 2009 | National standardized test | NA | NA | NA |
| Flick et al,35 2011 | California achievement math and reading | NA | NA | NA |
| Hansen et al,36 2011 | Test score (standardized test and teacher rating) | NA | Test nonattainment | Used test scores |
| Bong et al,48 2013 | PSLE | NA | NA | NA |
| Ing et al al,56 2014 | WAMSE numeracy and reading | NA | WAMSE spelling and writing | Used numeracy and reading outcomes |
| Williams et al,61 2014 | State achievement math and reading | NA | NA | NA |
| Glatz et al,88 2017 | School grades | NA | NA | NA |
| Hu et al, 201790 | OLSAT | NA | NA | NA |
| Schneuer et al,103 2018 | NAPLAN numeracy and reading | NA | NA | NA |
| Warner et al,105 2018 | CLDQ math and reading | NA | NA | NA |
| McCann et al,108 2019 | WIAT-II numerical and reading | NA | WIAT-II spelling | Not overall outcome |
| Walkden et al,122 2020 | Key stage 4 total points | NA | Key stage 2 English, Math, and Science; Key stage 3 English Math, and Science; Number of Key Stage 4 examination entries; Key Stage 2 nonattainment; Key Stage 3 nonattainment, Key stage 4 English and Math A, A, B, or C grade; and Key stage 4 Science 2 “good” passes (≥C grade) | Used overall outcome at oldest age |
| Adaptive behavior | ||||
| Sun et al,82 2016 | NA | NA | ABAS-II composite | Inadequate number of studies for meta-analysis |
| McCann et al,108 2019 | NA | NA | ABAS-II composite | Inadequate number of studies for meta-analysis |
| Kobayashi et al,120 2020 | NA | NA | J-ASQ-3 problem solving, personal-social | Not overall outcome |
| Behavioral problems | ||||
| Bartels et al,27 2009 | NA | CTRS-R | NA | NA |
| Ing et al,40 2012 | CBCL total problems | CBCL internalizing and externalizing | NA | NA |
| Stratmann et al,60 2014 | CBCL total problems | NA | NA | NA |
| Bakri et al,64 2015 | NA | CBCL internalizing and externalizing | CBCL aggressive behavior, anxious depression, delinquent behavior, emotionally reactive, somatic complaints, or withdrawn | Subdomains, not overall scores |
| Sun et al,82 2016 | CBCL total problems | CBCL internalizing and externalizing | NA | NA |
| Warner et al,105 2018 | CBCL total problems | CBCL internalizing and externalizing | NA | NA |
| Khochfe et al,107 2019 | NA | ECBI | NA | NA |
| McCann et al,108 2019 | CBCL total problems | CBCL internalizing and externalizing | NA | NA |
| Walkden et al,122 2020 | SDQ | NA | Skuse sociocognitive dysfunction score | Not overall score |
| Cognition | ||||
| Walker et al,33 2010 | BSID-III cognition | NA | NA | NA |
| Flick et al,35 2011 | TCS total cognitive | NA | NA | NA |
| Stratmann et al,60 2014 | WASI FSIQ | NA | NA | NA |
| Backeljauw et al,63 2015 | WISC-III NL | NA | NA | NA |
| Sun et al,82 2016 | WASI FSIQ | NA | NA | NA |
| Glatz et al,88 2017 | Conscription IQ | NA | NA | NA |
| Lv et al,102 2018 | BSID-II MDI | NA | NA | NA |
| Warner et al,105 2018 | WASI FSIQ | NA | NA | NA |
| McCann et al,108 2019 | WPPSI-III FSIQ | NA | NA | NA |
| Walkden et al,122 2020 | WISC-III GIQ | NA | WASI GIQ | Less comprehensive measure of cognition |
| Zhou et al,130 2021 | WPPSI-IV CR FSIQ | NA | NA | NA |
| Clinical diagnoses and symptoms | ||||
| Wilder et al,31 2009 | LD diagnosis | NA | Reading, written, and math LD | Used overall LD |
| Flick et al,35 2011 | LD diagnosis | NA | Reading, written, and math LD, IEP speech/language, and IEP emotion/behavior | Used overall LD |
| Sprung et al,45 2012 | ADHD diagnosis | ADHD diagnosis | NA | NA |
| Bong et al,48 2013 | LD diagnosis | NA | NA | NA |
| Minutillo et al,51 2013 | NA | NA | Blindness, cerebral palsy, and hearing | Not conceptualized as neurodevelopmental disorder |
| Ing et al a,56 2014 | Mental disorder diagnosis | NA | NA | NA |
| Bakri et al,64 2015 | ADHD diagnosis | ADHD diagnosis | Affective, anxiety, pervasive developmental, and oppositional defiant problems | Used ADHD diagnoses |
| Hu et al,90 2017 | LD diagnosis | ADHD diagnosis | Reading, written, and math LD; IEP speech/language; and IEP emotion/behavior | Used overall LD |
| Ing et al a,91 2017 | Mental disorder diagnoses | ADHD diagnosis | DD diagnosis | Used mental disorder and ADHD diagnosis |
| Nestor et al,95 2017 | Psychiatric diagnoses | NA | DD diagnosis | Used overall outcome |
| Castellheim et al,99 2018 | NA | NA | A-TAC ASD, A-TAC-LD, and A-TAC ADHD | Not clinical diagnoses |
| Kozanhan et al,101 2018 | NA | NA | Cerebral palsy | Not conceptualized as neurodevelopmental disorder |
| Tsai et al,104 2018 | ADHD diagnosis | ADHD diagnosis | NA | NA |
| Warner et al,105 2018 | NA | NA | CBCL ADHD problems | Not clinical diagnoses |
| McCann et al,108 2019 | Behavioral disorder diagnoses | NA | ADHD, ASD, and DD diagnosis; blindness; cerebral palsy; hearing | Used Behavioral disorder diagnoses. ADHD diagnosis could not be evaluated because no other studies reported ADHD using odds or risk ratios |
| Zhou et al,130 2021 | NA | NA | Cerebral palsy, hearing or vision impairment, intervention for neurodevelopmental problem, DD, and language, behavioral, or psychomotor disorder | Not conceptualized as neurodevelopmental disorder, and not formal clinical diagnoses |
| Executive function | ||||
| Flick et al,35 2011 | NA | NA | TCS memory | Not overall score |
| Ing et al,40 2012 | NA | NA | SDMT oral and SDMT written | Not overall scores |
| Fan et al,49 2013 | NA | NA | WPPSI-III Animal House | Not overall score |
| Stratmann et al,60 2014 | NA | NA | Recognition memory | Not overall score |
| Taghon et al,70 2015 | NA | NA | Go task | Not overall score |
| Aun et al,71 2016 | NA | NA | G-TVPS, HKLL, and WJ | Not overall scores |
| Poor Zamany et al,80 2016 | NA | NA | BDS, FDS, PVF, and SVF | Not overall scores |
| Sun et al,82 2016 | BRIEF-GEC | NA | CVLT-C, DKEFS subtests, NEPSY-II (multiple components), WISC-IV coding and digit span, CPT2 commissions, and omissions | Not overall scores |
| Warner et al,105 2018 | BRIEF-GEC | NA | WCST, WRAML-2, CPT2 (any component), DKEFS expressive language composite, category fluency, and Tower Test total | Not overall scores |
| McCann et al,108 2019 | BRIEF-GEC | NA | CMS, NEPSY-II (multiple components), WPPSI-III processing speed | Not overall scores |
| Warner et al,112 2019 | NA | NA | OTB | Not overall score |
| Walkden et al,122 2020 | NA | NA | TEA-Ch sky search and opposite worlds, and counting span | Not overall scores |
| Zhou et al,130 2021 | NA | NA | WPPSI-IV CR working memory, and processing speed | Not overall scores |
| General development | ||||
| Graham et al,76 2016 | EDI total score | NA | NA | NA |
| O’Leary et al,79 2016 | EDI early developmental vulnerability | NA | EDI multiple challenge index and language and cognitive development | Not overall scores |
| Schneuer et al,103 2018 | Developmentally high-risk AVEDI | NA | AVEDI cognitive development | Not overall score |
| General health and well-being | ||||
| Graham et al,76 2016 | NA | NA | EDI physical health and well-being | Not overall score |
| O’Leary et al,79 2016 | NA | NA | EDI physical health and well-being | Not overall score |
| Language | ||||
| Ing et al,40 2012 | CELF Total Score | NA | PPVT | Less comprehensive measure of language than CELF Total Score |
| Stratmann et al,60 2014 | WASI VIQ | NA | NA | NA |
| Backeljauw et al,63 2015 | WISC-III VIQ | NA | OWLS | Not overall score |
| Graham et al,76 2016 | NA | NA | EDI communication | Not overall score |
| O’Leary et al,79 2016 | NA | NA | EDI communication | Not overall score |
| Sun et al,82 2016 | WASI VIQ | NA | NEPSY-II comprehension of instructions and WASI similarities | Not overall score |
| Hu et al,90 2017 | OLSAT language | NA | IEP speech/language | Not overall score |
| Schneuer et al,103 2018 | NA | NA | AVEDI communication health and language | Not overall scores |
| Warner et al,105 2018 | Boston Naming Test | NA | CTOPP and WASI Vocabulary | Not overall score |
| McCann et al,108 2019 | WPPSI-III VIQ | NA | NA | NA |
| Kobayashi et al,120 2020 | J-ASQ-3 Communication | NA | NA | NA |
| Walkden et al,122 2020 | Children’s Communication Checklist | NA | WISC-III VIQ | NA |
| Zhou et al,130 2021 | WPPSI-IV (CR) VCI | NA | NA | NA |
| Motor function | ||||
| Walker et al,33 2010 | NA | BSID-III fine motor and gross motor | NA | NA |
| Ing et al,40 2012 | MAND | NA | NA | NA |
| Davidson et al,72 2016 | BSID-III motor composite | BSID-III fine motor and gross motor | NA | NA |
| Sun et al,82 2016 | NA | GPT dominant hand (fine motor) | NA | NA |
| Lv et al,102 2018 | BSID-II PDI | NA | NA | NA |
| Warner et al,105 2018 | NA | Beery Fine motor composite | Beery Buktenica visual perception, Beery Buktenica VMI, and GPT dominant and nondominant hand | Not overall scores |
| Kobayashi et al,120 2020 | NA | J-ASQ-3 fine motor and gross motor | NA | NA |
| Walkden et al,122 2020 | NA | NA | M-ABC preferred and nonpreferred hand peg, heel-to-toe walking, and and bean bag throwing | Limited assessment of fine and gross motor function |
| Nonverbal reasoning | ||||
| Ing et al,40 2012 | CPM | NA | NA | NA |
| Stratmann et al,60 2014 | WASI-PIQ | NA | NA | NA |
| Backeljauw et al,63 2015 | WISC-III PIQ | NA | NA | NA |
| Sun et al,82 2016 | WASI-PIQ | NA | WASI block design and WASI matrix reasoning | Not overall scores |
| de Heer et al,87 2017 | SON-R | NA | NA | NA |
| McCann et al,108 2019 | WPPSI-III PIQ | NA | NEPSY-II design copy | Not overall score |
| Social cognition | ||||
| Graham et al,76 2016 | NA | NA | EDI emotional health and social knowledge | Not overall scores |
| O’Leary et al,79 2016 | NA | NA | EDI emotional health and social knowledge | Not overall scores |
| McCann et al,108 2019 | NA | NA | NEPSY-II theory of mind and affect recognition | Not overall scores |
Abbreviations: ABAS-II, Adaptive Behavior Assessment System–Second Edition; ADHD, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; ASD, Autism Spectrum Disorder; A-TAC, Autism-Tics, ADHD, and Other Comorbidities Inventory; AVEDI, Early Development Instrument (Australia); BDS, Backward Digit Span Test; BRIEF-GEC, Behavior Rating Inventory of the Executive Functions Global Executive Composite; BSID-II, Bayley Scales of Infant Development–Second Edition; BSID-III, Bayley Scales of Infant Development–Third Edition; CBCL, Child Behavior Checklist; CELF, Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals; CLDQ, Colorado Learning Difficulties Questionnaire; CMS, Children’s Memory Scale; CPM, Raven’s Colored Progressive Matrices; CPT2, Conner Continuous Performance Test II; CTOPP, Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing; CTRS-R, Conners Teacher Rating Scale–Revised, Short Form; CVLT-C, California Verbal Learning Test–Children; DD, developmental delay; DKEFS, Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System; ECBI, Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory; EDI, Early Development Instrument; FDS, Forward Digit Span Test; FSIQ, Full Scale Intelligence Quotient; GIQ, Global Intelligence Quotient; GPT, Grooved Pegboard Test; G-TVPS, Gardner Test of Visual-Perceptual Skills Revised; HKLL, Hong Kong List Learning; IEP, Individualized Education Plan; J-ASQ-3, Ages and Stages Questionnaire 3 Japanese version; LD, learning disorder or disability; MAND, McCarren Assessment of Neuromuscular Development; MDI, Mental Development Index; NA, not applicable; NAPLAN, National Assessment Program-Literacy and Numeracy; NEPSY-II, Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment Battery–Second Edition; OLSAT, Stanford/Otis-Lennon School Ability Test; OTB, Operant Test Battery; OWLS, Oral and Written Language Scales; PDI, Psychomotor Development Index; PIQ, Performance Intelligence Quotient; PPVT, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test; PSLE, Primary School Leaving Examination; PVF, Phonemic Verbal Fluency Test; SDMT, Symbol Digit Modality Test; SDQ, Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire; SON-R, Hogrefe/Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Test–Revised; SVF, Semantic Verbal Fluency Test; TCS, Test of Cognitive Skills; TEA-Ch, Test of Everyday Attention for Children; VCI, Verbal Comprehension Index; VIQ, Verbal Intelligence Quotient; VMI, Visual-motor Integration; WAMSE, Western Australian Literacy and Numeracy Standardized Test; WASI, Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence; WCST, Wisconsin Card Sort Test; WIAT-II, Wechsler Individual Achievement Test–Second Edition; WISC-III, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Third Edition; WISC-IV, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fourth Edition; WJ, Woodcock–Johnson Visual Matching Test; WPPSI-III, Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence–Third Edition; WPPSI-IV CR, Wechsler Preschool & Primary Scale of Intelligence–Fourth Edition, Chinese Version; WRAML-2, Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning, Second Edition.
No studies with a sensory outcome were eligible for meta-analysis.