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. 2022 Jun 17;21:191. doi: 10.1186/s12936-022-04169-8

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 8 — Protein microarray using plasma from volunteers undergoing CHMI. Figure shows the heatmap from protein microarrays in the semi-immune study population as well as a European malaria-naïve control population (a). The intensity of antibody responses in the population being protected from clinical malaria and those who developed malaria were compared and shown as volcano plot. The red circles are antigens being at least two-fold higher and significantly upregulated in the respective group (b). c shows the heatmap in participants having at least two-fold higher antibody response in the protected group vs. the unprotected group, thus showing the raw data of the red dots in Fig. 8b. Gene ID according to PlasmoDB are given. d shows the breadth of the antibody response in those who develop malaria (n = 15), those who control the parasitaemia (n = 12), those having full protection (n = 7), in the negative control (1 European malaria-naïve sample, measured in 5 technical replicates) and in European naïve controls (n = 13). Data are from a single experiment after several optimization tests, and individual volunteers were measured in separate experiments. Differential antibody recognition in the different allocated study outcomes was analysed by Student’s t-test. p value less than 0.05 is considered as statistically significant. NC Negative control, N malaria-naïve subjects, M subjects having clinical symptoms of malaria after CHMI, C subjects controlling parasitaemia, P subjects fully protected after CHMI