TABLE 3.

Multivariable predictors of agitation and restraint use

Predictors	aOR a	95% CI
Predictors of agitation/aggression
Non‐Hispanic Black	1.8	1.2–2.7
ADHD	1.9	1.5–2.4
Autism	7.1	5.1–9.9
Bipolar disorder	2.8	1.9–4.2
Conduct disorder	5.4	4.2–7.1
DMDD	3.2	1.9–5.3
ODD	1.7	1.1–2.7
Psychosis	4.2	1.8–9.4
Depression	0.4	0.3–0.5
Suicidality	0.2	0.1–0.3
Predictors of restraint use among agitated patients
BARS score (5–7)	7.1	5.0–10.0
ADHD	2.2	1.5–3.3
Autism	2.9	1.9–4.5
Conduct disorder	1.7	1.2–2.5
Overdose/substance use	1.9	1.2–3.2
Psychosis	14.3	2.5–271.8
Non‐Hispanic Black	0.8	0.3–1.8

Note: BARS scores: 5 = mild agitation, 6 = moderate agitation, and 7 = severe agitation.

Abbreviations: ADHD, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; aOR, adjusted odds ratio; BARS, Behavioral Activity Rating Scale; CI, confidence interval; DMDD, disruptive mood dysregulation disorder; ODD, oppositional defiant disorder.

^a Adjusted for age, sex, ethnicity, and ED length of stay.