Table 1.
Participant characteristics at pregnancy and follow-up examinations, overall and by gestational diabetes mellitus status during the study pregnancy: The HAPO Follow-Up Study
| During Pregnancy | At Follow-Up | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Overall | GDM | No GDM | Overall | GDM | No GDM | |
| N (%) | 4693 | 672 (14.3) | 4021 (85.7) | 4693 | 672 (14.3) | 4021 (85.7) |
| Race and ethnicity, N (%) | ||||||
| Hispanic | 488 (10.4) | 108 (16.1) | 380 (9.5) | --- | --- | --- |
| Non-Hispanic Asian | 1173 (25) | 196 (29.2) | 977 (24.3) | --- | --- | --- |
| Non-Hispanic Black | 733 (15.6) | 82 (12.2) | 651 (16.2) | --- | --- | --- |
| Non-Hispanic White | 2212 (47.1) | 270 (40.2) | 1942 (48.3) | --- | --- | --- |
| Othera | 87 (1.9) | 16 (2.4) | 71 (1.8) | --- | --- | --- |
| Age at exam, mean (SD), years | 30.1 (5.6) | 31.9 (5.3) | 29.8 (5.6) | 41.7 (5.7) | 43.6 (5.4) | 41.4 (5.7) |
| Time since delivery, mean (SD), years | --- | --- | --- | 11.4 (1.2) | 11.5 (1.2) | 11.4 (1.2) |
| Gestational age at exam, mean (SD), weeks | 27.7 (1.7) | 27.9 (1.7) | 27.7 (1.7) | --- | --- | --- |
| Parity ≥1 at pregnancy HAPO exam, N (%) | 2420 (51.6) | 383 (57) | 2037 (50.7) | --- | --- | --- |
| Parity ≥1 since HAPO delivery, N (%) | --- | --- | --- | 2560 (54.7) | 303 (45.4) | 2257 (56.2) |
| Smoking, N (%) | 243 (5.2) | 42 (6.2) | 201 (5) | 368 (7.9) | 75 (11.2) | 293 (7.3) |
| Alcohol consumption, N (%) | 402 (8.6) | 56 (8.3) | 346 (8.6) | 1527 (32.6) | 195 (29.1) | 1332 (33.2) |
| Body mass index, mean (SD), kg/m2 | 27.4 (4.8) | 29.7 (5.2) | 27 (4.6) | 27 (6.1) | 28.9 (6.5) | 26.7 (6) |
| Obesity, N (%) b | 554 (11.8) | 141 (21) | 413 (10.3) | 1178 (25.4) | 246 (37) | 932 (23.5) |
| Preeclampsia, N (%) c | 205 (4.4) | 57 (8.5) | 148 (3.7) | --- | --- | --- |
| Gestational Hypertension, N (%) d | 295 (6.3) | 63 (9.4) | 232 (5.8) | --- | --- | --- |
| Fasting glucose, mean (SD), mmol/L | 4.5 (0.4) | 4.9 (0.4) | 4.4 (0.3) | 5.1 (0.7) | 5.5 (1.2) | 5.1 (0.5) |
| 1-hour glucose, mean (SD), mmol/L | 7.4 (1.7) | 9.6 (1.6) | 7 (1.4) | --- | --- | --- |
| 2-hour glucose, mean (SD), mmol/L | 6.1 (1.3) | 7.6 (1.5) | 5.9 (1.1) | 6.3 (2) | 7.5 (2.9) | 6.1 (1.7) |
| Fasting insulin, mean (SD), pmol/L | --- | --- | --- | 64.6 (185.8) | 64.6 (185.8) | 64.6 (185.8) |
| Fasting c-peptide, mean (SD), nmol/L | 0.6 (0.3) | 0.9 (0.4) | 0.6 (0.2) | 0.7 (0.3) | 0.8 (0.3) | 0.7 (0.3) |
| Type 2 Diabetes, N (%) | --- | --- | --- | 134 (2.9) | 71 (10.7) | 63 (1.6) |
| Total cholesterol, mean (SD), mmol/L e | 6.4 (1.2) | 6.3 (1.2) | 6.4 (1.2) | 4.8 (0.9) | 5 (0.9) | 4.8 (0.9) |
| Total cholesterol ≥5.17 mmol/L, N (%) e | 1913 (85) | 274 (82.5) | 1639 (85.4) | 1477 (32.3) | 285 (44) | 1192 (30.4) |
| Total cholesterol ≥6.21 mmol/L, N (%) e | 1217 (54.1) | 174 (52.4) | 1043 (54.4) | 369 (8.1) | 81 (12.5) | 288 (7.3) |
| HDL cholesterol, mean (SD), mmol/L e | 1.9 (0.4) | 1.8 (0.4) | 1.9 (0.4) | 1.5 (0.4) | 1.5 (0.4) | 1.5 (0.4) |
| HDL cholesterol <1.29 mmol/L, N (%) e | 114 (5.1) | 20 (6) | 94 (4.9) | 1239 (27.2) | 220 (34.5) | 1019 (26) |
| HDL cholesterol <1.03 mmol/L, N (%) e | 17 (0.8) | 6 (1.8) | 11 (0.6) | 222 (4.9) | 35 (5.5) | 187 (4.8) |
| Non-HDL cholesterol, mean (SD), mmol/L e | 4.5 (1.1) | 4.4 (1.1) | 4.5 (1.1) | 3.3 (0.8) | 3.5 (0.9) | 3.2 (0.8) |
| Non-HDL cholesterol ≥4.14 mmol/L, N (%) e | 1349 (60) | 199 (59.9) | 1150 (60) | 747 (16.5) | 164 (25.3) | 583 (15) |
| Non-HDL cholesterol ≥4.91 mmol/L, N (%) e | 727 (32.3) | 98 (29.5) | 629 (32.8) | 261 (5.8) | 64 (9.9) | 197 (5.1) |
| LDL cholesterol, mean (SD), mmol/L e,f | 3.6 (1.1) | 3.5 (1) | 3.6 (1.1) | 2.8 (0.8) | 3 (0.8) | 2.8 (0.7) |
| LDL cholesterol ≥3.36 mmol/L, N (%) e,f | 1280 (56.9) | 183 (55.1) | 1097 (57.2) | 1023 (22.4) | 203 (31.5) | 820 (20.9) |
| LDL cholesterol ≥4.14 mmol/L, N (%) e,f | 657 (29.2) | 79 (23.8) | 578 (30.1) | 309 (6.8) | 74 (11.5) | 235 (6) |
| Triglycerides, median (IQR), mmol/L e,g | 2.2 (1.8–2.8) | 2.5 (2.1–3.2) | 2.2 (1.7–2.7) | 0.9 (0.7–1.3) | 1.1 (0.8–1.5) | 0.9 (0.7–1.2) |
| Triglycerides ≥1.69 mmol/L, N (%) e | 1779 (78.4) | 298 (88.7) | 1481 (76.6) | 496 (10.9) | 113 (17.7) | 383 (9.8) |
| Triglycerides ≥2.26 mmol/L, N (%) e | 1075 (47.4) | 214 (63.7) | 861 (44.5) | 184 (4) | 41 (6.4) | 143 (3.7) |
| Taking cholesterol-lowering medication, N (%) | --- | --- | --- | 87 (1.9) | 27 (4) | 60 (1.5) |
Included Native American/Alaskan Native at US field centers. First Nation in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, and self-identified as other at all field centers.
Defined during pregnancy as body mass index ≥33 kg/m2, based on previously reported regression of pregnancy body mass index on pre-pregnancy body mass index, and selected to correspond to pre-pregnancy body mass index ≥30 kg/m2.
Defined as a systolic blood pressure of ≥140 mm Hg or diastolic blood pressure of ≥90 mm Hg on ≥2 occasions which are ≥6 hours apart, plus proteinuria of ≥1+ on a dipstick or ≥300 mg/24 hours.
If the criteria elevated blood pressure (as for preeclampsiac) were first met after 20 weeks of gestation, but those for proteinuria were not met, the hypertension was classified as gestational hypertension.
Lipid measurements were available in a subset of 2275 women during pregnancy.
Directly measured during pregnancy; calculated using the Friedewald equation (in women with TG<4.52 mmol/L) at follow-up.
Because the distributions of triglycerides at baseline and follow-up were skewed, median and interquartile ranges are reported, and continuous triglyceride levels were log-transformed in subsequent analyses.
GDM, gestational diabetes mellitus; HAPO, Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; IQR, interquartile range; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; SD, standard deviation.