Table 2.

Subgroup Analyses of Virtual Simulation for Applied Knowledge and Skills Demonstration Scores

Category	Subgroups	No. of Studies(Ref)	Sample Size (n)	d (95% CI)	Overall effect (Z, p-value for Z)	Subgroup Difference (p-value for Q, I^2)
Knowledge Scores
Learning Content	Patient Care Management	8 (b, c, e, f, i, j, k, l)	619	0.91 (0.33, 1.48)	Z = 3.08, p = .002*	p = .25, I^2= 23.8%
	Clinical Procedural Skills	2 (a, d)	113	0.48 (0.02, 0.93)	Z = 2.04, p = .04*
Number of Scenarios	Multiple	6 (b, d, e, f, i, j)	446	0.84 (0.35, 1.33)	Z = 3.36, p < .0008*	p = .97, I^2= 0%
	Single	4 (a, c, k, l)	286	0.86 (-0.25, 1.96)	Z = 1.52, p = .13
Feedback	Post Scenario	8 (b, c, d, e, f, i, j, k)	543	0.73 (0.25, 1.20)	Z = 3.00, p < .003*	p = .36, I^2= 0%
	NonPost Scenario	2 (a, l)	189	1.33 (-0.61, 3.21)	Z = 1.33, p = .18
Learning Duration	≤ 30 minutes > 30 minutes	3(a, d, l) 5(c, f, i, j, k)	216 321	1.16 (-0.16, 2.47) 0.57 (0.15, 1.00)	Z = 1.73, p = .08 Z = 2.63, p = .009*	p = .41, I^2= 0%
Immersive Experience	Immersive Environment NonImmersive Environment	3 (a, f, l) 7 (b, c, d, e, i, j, k)	282 450	1.08 (-0.03, 2.19) 0.74 (0.17, 1.30)	Z = 1.90, p = .06 Z = 2.56, p = .01*	p = .59, I^2= 0%
Skills Demonstration Scores
Learning Duration	≤30 minutes >30 minutes	2 (a, l) 4 (g, h, i, j)	189 255	0.28 (-0.01, 0.57) 2.82 (1.05, 4.59)	Z = 1.92, p = .06 Z = 3.13, p = .002*	p = .005*, I^2= 87.0%
Immersive Experience	Immersive Environment NonImmersive Environment	2 (a, l) 4 (g, h, i, j)	189 255	0.28 (-0.01, 0.57) 2.82 (1.05, 4.59)	Z = 1.92, p = .06 Z = 3.13, p = .002*	p = .005*, I^2 = 87.0%

Note: CI = Confidence Interval; d = Cohen's d (Effect Size); I^{^2} = Heterogeneity; Ref = Reference; Z = z-Statistics;

Reference: ^a(Bayram & Caliskan, 2019); ^b(Blanié et al., 2020); ^c(Cobbett & Clarke, 2016); ^d(Gu et al., 2017); ^e(Li, 2016); ^f(LeFlore et al., 2012); ^g(Liaw et al., 2014); ^h(Liaw et al., 2015a); ⁱ(Liaw et al., 2015b); ^j(Liaw et al., 2017); ^k(Padilha et al., 2019); ^l(Tan et al., 2017)

^⁎p < .05