Table 2.
Summary of studies including sample type, definition employed to describe DP, type of digital technology used, and dimension of depression assessed
| N | N / ref | First Author | Year | Clinical Sample | Definition | Digital technology / Type of data (active and/or passive) | Dimensions of depression |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | [1] | Abela | 2007 | No | ESM* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood, cognitive style |
| 2 | [2] | Adams | 2009 | No | ESM* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood, cognitive style |
| 3 | [6] | Bai | 2021 | Yes | DP* | Mobile app, Wrist sensor, GPS, Accelerometer, Smartphone comm logs, Screen activity (A/P) | Mood, psychomotor activity, sleep |
| 4 | [8] | Bartels | 2020 | No | ESM* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood, social functioning, depression risk and protective factors (intervention) |
| 5 | [12] | Ben-Zeev | 2009 | Yes | ESM | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood |
| 6 | [13] | Ben-Zeev | 2015 | No | EMA* | Mobile app, GPS, Wi-Fi, Accelerometer, Audio recording, Ambient light (A/P) | Psychomotor activity, sleep, social functioning |
| 7 | [15] | Beute | 2018 | No | EMA | Mobile app (A) # | Mood, depression risk and protective factors (psychosomatic complains) |
| 8 | [16] | Bickham | 2015 | No | EMA* | Handheld computer (A) # | Depression risk and protective factors (media use) |
| 9 | [18] | Bos | 2019 | No | ESM* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood |
| 10 | [21] | Bower | 2010 | Yes | ESM* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood, sleep |
| 11 | [23] | Brose | 2017 | No | ESM* | Mobile app (A) # | Depression risk and protective factors (stress) |
| 12 | [24] | Brown | 2011 | No | ESM | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood, social functioning, cognitive performance |
| 13 | [25] | Burns | 2011 | No | EMA | Mobile app, GPS, Wi-Fi, Accelerometer, Smartphone comm logs, Ambient light (A/P) | Depression risk and protective factors (intervention) |
| 14 | [27] | Bylsma | 2011 | No | ESM | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood, social functioning |
| 15 | [29] | Cho | 2019 | Yes | DP | Mobile app, Wrist sensor, Accelerometer (A/P) | Mood, psychomotor activity, sleep |
| 16 | [30] | Chow | 2017 | No | ESM*, Mobile Sensing* | Mobile app, GPS (A/P) | Mood, psychomotor activity, social functioning |
| 17 | [31] | Chue | 2017 | No | EMA* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood, social functioning |
| 18 | [33] | Clasen | 2015 | No | ESM* | Mobile app (A) # | Mood, cognitive style |
| 19 | [35] | Colombo | 2020 | No | EMA* | Mobile app (A) # | Mood |
| 20 | [37] | Cormack | 2019 | Yes | DP* | Mobile app, Wrist sensor, Accelerometer (A/P) | Mood, psychomotor activity, cognitive performance |
| 21 | [40] | Cushing | 2018 | No | EMA* | Mobile app, Accelerometer (A/P) | Mood, psychomotor activity |
| 22 | [45] | Dejonckheere | 2019 | No | ESM* | Mobile app (A) # | Mood, cognitive style |
| 23 | [46] | Demiralp | 2012 | Yes | ESM* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood |
| 24 | [47] | Depp | 2015 | Yes | EMA | Mobile app (A) # | Depression risk and protective factors (intervention) |
| 25 | [49] | Di Matteo | 2020 | No | EMA | Mobile app, Smartphone comm logs (A/P) | Psychomotor activity, sleep, social functioning |
| 26 | [50] | Di Matteo | 2021 | No | Passive sensing* | Mobile app, Audio recordings (A/P) | Mood |
| 27 | [51] | Dietvorst | 2021 | No | ESM* | Mobile app, Online survey (A/P) | Mood |
| 28 | [52] | Difrancesco | 2018 | Yes | EMA*, AA* | Mobile app, Wrist sensor, Accelerometer (A/P) | Sleep, psychomotor activity |
| 29 | [53] | Eddington | 2017 | Yes | AA* | Mobile app (A) # | Depression risk and protective factors (intervention) |
| 30 | [56] | Elovainio | 2020 | No | EMA | Mobile app, Accelerometer, Online survey (A/P) | Sleep |
| 31 | [58] | Fang | 2019 | No | ESM | Mobile app (A) # | Cognitive style |
| 32 | [59] | Feiler | 2005 | Yes | Time series analysis | Handheld computer (A) # | Depression risk and protective factors (pain) |
| 33 | [65] | Gansner | 2020 | Yes | EMA | Mobile app (A/P) | Depression risk and protective factors (rheumatoid arthritis and pain) |
| 34 | [66] | Geyer | 2018 | No | EMA | Mobile app (A) # | Mood, social functioning |
| 35 | [67] | Giesbrecht | 2012 | No | EMA* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood |
| 36 | [69] | Goldschmidt | 2014 | No | EMA | Handheld computer (A) # | Food intake |
| 37 | [71] | Graham-Engeland | 2016 | Yes | EMA | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood, depression risk and protective factors (rheumatoid arthritis and pain) |
| 38 | [72] | Gruber | 2013 | Yes | ESM | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood |
| 39 | [73] | Hahn | 2021 | No | DP* | Online survey (A) # | Mood |
| 40 | [74] | Hallensleben | 2017 | Yes | EMA | Mobile app (A) # | Suicidality |
| 41 | [76] | Hamilton | 2020 | No | EMA* | Mobile app (A) # | Sleep, depression risk and protective factors (social media use) |
| 42 | [77] | Hartmann | 2015 | Yes | ESM | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood, depression risk and protective factors (intervention) |
| 43 | [79] | Heninga | 2019 | Yes | ESM* | Mobile app (A) # | Mood, social functioning, psychomotor activity |
| 44 | [80] | Hepp | 2019 | Yes | AA | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood, social functioning |
| 45 | [82] | Hershenberg | 2017 | Yes | ESM* | Interactive voice recording (A) # | Mood, cognitive style |
| 46 | [83] | Holmes | 2016 | Yes | Time series analysis | Mobile app, Online survey (A) # | Depression risk and protective factors (intervention) |
| 47 | [85] | Huckins | 2020 | No | EMA | Mobile app, GPS, Accelerometer, Screen activity, Ambient light (A/P) | Depression risk and protective factors (COVID-19) |
| 48 | [86] | Huffziger (a) | 2013 | Yes | AA* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood, cognitive style |
| 49 | [87] | Huffziger (b) | 2013 | No | AA* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood, cognitive style |
| 50 | [88] | Hung | 2016 | Yes | EMA* | Mobile app (A) # | Mood, sleep, cognitive performance |
| 51 | [89] | Husky | 2009 | No | ESM* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood |
| 52 | [91] | Jacobson (a) | 2019 | Yes | Digital biomarkers* | Wrist sensor, Accelerometer (P) | Psychomotor activity |
| 53 | [92] | Jacobson (b) | 2019 | Yes | DP* | Wrist sensor, Accelerometer, Ambient light (P) | Psychomotor activity |
| 54 | [93] | Jacobson (a) | 2020 | No | DP* | Mobile app, Accelerometer, Smartphone comm logs (A/P) | Social functioning, psychomotor activity |
| 55 | [94] | Jacobson (b) | 2020 | No | DP*, Passive sensing* | Mobile app, GPS, Wi-Fi, Smartphone comm logs, Ambient light (A/P) | Mood, social functioning, psychomotor activity |
| 56 | [97] | Jean | 2013 | Yes | EMA* | Handheld computer (A) # | Depression risk and protective factors (dep risk following stroke) |
| 57 | [100] | Kaufmann | 2016 | Yes | EMA | Mobile app (A) # | Mood, sleep |
| 58 | [102] | Khazanov | 2019 | Yes | EMA* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood, cognitive style |
| 59 | [103] | Kim | 2013 | No | EMA | Handheld computer, Wrist sensor, Accelerometer (A/P) | Mood, psychomotor activity |
| 60 | [104] | Kim | 2014 | Yes | EMA* | Handheld computer, Wrist sensor, Accelerometer (A/P) | Mood, psychomotor activity |
| 61 | [105] | Kim | 2019 | No | EMA | Handheld computer, Wrist sensor, Accelerometer (A/P) | Mood, psychomotor activity, sleep |
| 62 | [106] | Kircanski | 2015 | No | ESM* | Handheld computer (A) # | Cognitive style |
| 63 | [109] | Koval | 2013 | No | ESM* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood |
| 64 | [110] | Kramer | 2014 | Yes | EMA*, ESM | Handheld computer (A) # | Depression risk and protective factors (intervention) |
| 65 | [114] | Lavender | 2013 | Yes | EMA* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood, food intake |
| 66 | [121] | Maher | 2018 | No | EMA | Mobile app (A) # | Mood |
| 67 | [122] | Mak | 2020 | Yes | EMA* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood, dep risk and protective factors (rheumatoid disease and pain) |
| 68 | [125] | Mata | 2012 | Yes | ESM* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood, psychomotor activity |
| 69 | [126] | McIntyre | 2021 | Yes | EMA | Mobile app, GPS, Smartphone comm logs (A/P) | Psychomotor activity, social functioning |
| 70 | [128] | Melcher | 2021 | No | DP | Mobile app, GPS, Accelerometer (A/P) | Psychomotor activity, sleep |
| 71 | [130] | Minaeva (a) | 2020 | Yes | ESM, AA* | Mobile app, Accelerometer (A/P) | Mood, psychomotor activity, sleep |
| 72 | [131] | Minaeva (b) | 2020 | No | EMA*, AA* | Wrist sensor, Accelerometer (P) | Mood, psychomotor activity |
| 73 | [134] | Moreno | 2012 | No | ESM | Mobile app, Online survey (A) # | Depression risk and protective factors (Internet use) |
| 74 | [135] | Moshe | 2021 | No | DP | Mobile app, Ring, GPS, Accelerometer, Smartphone comm logs, Screen activity (A/P) | Mood, psychomotor activity, sleep |
| 75 | [136] | Moukaddam | 2019 | Yes | DP*, EMA | Mobile app, GPS, Accelerometer, Smartphone comm logs, Screen activity, Ambient light (A/P) | Mood, social functioning, sleep |
| 76 | [138] | Narziev | 2020 | No | EMA*, Passive sensing | Mobile app, Wrist sensor, Accelerometer, Smartphone comm logs, Screen activity, Ambient light (A/P) | Mood, psychomotor activity, social functioning, sleep |
| 77 | [139] | Nelson | 2018 | Yes | EMA* | Mobile app (A) # | Mood |
| 78 | [141] | Nook | 2021 | No | ESM | Mobile app (A) # | Mood |
| 79 | [142] | Nylocks | 2019 | Yes | ESM* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood, psychomotor activity |
| 80 | [143] | Odgers | 2017 | Yes | EMA* | Mobile app (A) # | Depression risk and protective factors (exposure to violence) |
| 81 | [144] | O’Leary | 2017 | Yes | ESM | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood, sleep |
| 82 | [147] | Panaite | 2018 | Yes | EMA* | Mobile app, Voice recording (A) # | Mood |
| 83 | [148] | Panaite | 2019 | No | EMA* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood, cognitive style |
| 84 | [150] | Pasyugina | 2015 | No | ESM | Mobile app, Voice recording (A) # | Mood, cognitive style |
| 85 | [151] | Pe | 2014 | No | ESM* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood |
| 86 | [152] | Pedrelli | 2020 | Yes | DP | Mobile app, Wrist sensor, GPS, Accelerometer, Smartphone comm logs (A/P) | Psychomotor activity, social functioning |
| 87 | [153] | Peterson | 2020 | Yes | EMA* | Mobile app (A) # | Depression risk and protective factors (intervention) |
| 88 | [154] | Place | 2017 | Yes | Mobile sensing | Mobile app, GPS, Wi-Fi, Accelerometer, Smartphone comm logs, Screen activity, Speech technology (A/P) | Psychomotor activity, social functioning |
| 89 | [155] | Putnam | 2007 | Yes | EMA* | Handheld computer (A) # | Cognitive style |
| 90 | [157] | Robbins | 2011 | Yes | EMA*, AA* | Audio recordings (P) | Depression risk and protective factors (rheumatoid arthritis) |
| 91 | [158] | Rodriguez | 2021 | No | ESM | Mobile app (A) # | Depression risk and protective factors (social media use) |
| 92 | [183] | Roekel | 2016 | No | ESM | Mobile app, handheld computer (A) # | Mood |
| 93 | [160] | Sagar | 2016 | Yes | EMA | Handheld computer (A) # | Depression risk and protective factors (marihuana use) |
| 94 | [162] | Schultebraucks | 2020 | Yes | DP* | Speech technology and facial recognition (A/P) | Psychomotor activity |
| 95 | [163] | Sears | 2018 | No | ESM* | Mobile app (A) # | Mood, social functioning |
| 96 | [166] | Sheets | 2020 | Yes | EMA | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood |
| 97 | [167] | Snippe | 2016 | Yes | ESM* | Handheld computer (A) # | Depression risk and protective factors (intervention) |
| 98 | [168] | Sperry | 2018 | No | ESM*, AA | Mobile app, Handheld computer, Chest patch (A/P) | Psychomotor activity, social functioning, food intake |
| 99 | [170] | Stasak | 2019 | Yes | DP* | Speech technology and facial recognition (A) # | Psychomotor activity, cognitive performance |
| 100 | [171] | Steenkamp | 2019 | Yes | ESM | Handheld computer (A) # | Depression risk and protective factors (childhood abuse) |
| 101 | [172] | Thompson | 2015 | No | ESM* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood |
| 102 | [173] | Thompson | 2016 | Yes | ESM* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood, cognitive style |
| 103 | [174] | Thompson | 2017 | Yes | ESM* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood |
| 104 | [181] | Trull | 2008 | Yes | EMA | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood |
| 105 | [184] | Vansteelandt | 2019 | Yes | EMA | Handheld computer (A) # | Cognitive style |
| 106 | [186] | Verkuil | 2015 | No | EMA* | Handheld computer, Chest patch (A/P) | Mood, psychomotor activity |
| 107 | [187] | Vesel | 2020 | No | Digital biomarker* | Mobile app, Typing metadata (A/P) | Psychomotor activity, cognitive performance |
| 108 | [188] | Vranceanu | 2009 | No | EMA | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood, social functioning |
| 109 | [189] | Wahle | 2016 | No | Mobile sensing | Mobile app, GPS, Wi-Fi, Accelerometer, Smartphone comm logs (A/P) | Depression risk and protective factors (intervention) |
| 110 | [190] | Wang | 2021 | No | ESM* | Mobile app (A) # | Mood |
| 111 | [191] | Wenze | 2006 | No | ESM* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood, cognitive style |
| 112 | [192] | Wenze | 2009 | No | ESM* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood, cognitive style |
| 113 | [193] | Wenze | 2012 | No | ESM* | Handheld computer (A) # | Mood |
| 114 | [194] | Wenze | 2018 | No | EMA | Mobile app (A) # | Mood, social functioning |
| 115 | [196] | Worten-Chaudhari | 2017 | No | EMA* | Mobile app (A) # | Depression risk and protective factors (intervention) |
| 116 | [197] | Wu | 2016 | No | ESM* | Handheld computer (A) # | Cognitive style |
| 117 | [198] | Zhang, | 2019 | No | Digital biomarker* | Speech technology and facial recognition (A) # | Psychomotor activity |
| 118 | [200] | Zulueta | 2018 | Yes | DP | Mobile app, Accelerometer, Typing metadata (A/P) | Psychomotor activity, cognitive performance |
* = Studies where methodology is mentioned without definition; # = Studies that exclusively use self-reported/clinical interview of symptoms of MDD to predict or assess the association with self-reported/clinical interview outcomes. EMA Ecological Momentary Assessment, ESM Experience Sampling Method, DP Digital Phenotype/ing, AA Ambulatory Assessment, N/Ref Study as numbered in the reference list, Smartphone comm logs Call/SMS frequency, timing, and duration, A Active/subjective data collection, P Passive/objective data collection, handheld computer this term refers exclusively to portable electronic devices such as a Palm that can be used to collect self-reported information (it should be noted that mobile phones are not considered handheld computers)