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. 2022 Jun 22;13:3567. doi: 10.1038/s41467-022-30971-8

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 4 — a Cartoon of butyrate biology: the short chain fatty acid is produced by members of the mammalian microbiome and is a key energy source for the host colonocytes. The anaerobic environment of the gut is favourable to butyrate producing bacteria and is reinforced by metabolism of butyrate by colonocytes, which lowers the oxygen potential in the gut. In addition, butyrate can reduce inflammation via effects on regulatory T cells by binding to G-protein couples receptors (GPCR)^60,61, (b) Evolutionary loss rate of a pyruvate to butyrate operon based upon the genomes of the PATRIC database (Methods). c Posterior distribution for butyrate loss rates for symbionts associated with vertebrate hosts against environmental or invertebrate associated hosts. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.