Table 2.
Description of feeding practices and health variables of children living within institution‐based care in six countries at baseline and 1‐year screening
| Feeding profile | All children at baseline | All children at 1 year | Children without disabilities at baseline | Children without disabilities at 1 year | Children with disabilities at baseline | Children with disabilities at 1 year |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Feeding method, n (%)a | N = 3335 | N = 1909 | N = 2578 | N = 1385 | N = 757 | N = 524 |
| Fed with bottle | 1398 (41.9) | 525 (27.5) | 1028 (39.9) | 327 (23.6) | 370 (48.9) | 198 (37.8) |
| Self‐fedb | 1727 (51.8) | 1046 (54.8) | 1469 (57) | 830 (59.9) | 258 (34.1) | 216 (41.2) |
| Fed with cup | 930 (27.9) | 650 (34.1) | 804 (31.2) | 504 (36.4) | 126 (16.6) | 146 (27.9) |
| Spoon fed | 1123 (33.7) | 957 (50.1) | 811 (31.5) | 628 (45.3) | 312 (41.2) | 329 (62.8) |
| Fed with adaptive utensils | 32 (1.0) | 21 (1.1) | 15 (.6) | 2 (0.1) | 17 (2.3) | 19 (3.6) |
| Breastfed | 9 (0.3) | 1 (0.1) | 7 (0.3) | 1 (0.1) | 2 (0.3) | 0 |
| Feed type, n (%)a | ||||||
| Formula | 1488 (44.6) | 467 (24.5) | 1108 (43) | 316 (22.8) | 380 (50.2) | 151 (28.8) |
| Solid foods | 1993 (59.8) | 1314 (68.8) | 1578 (61.2) | 951 (68.7) | 415 (54.8) | 363 (69.3) |
| Animal milk | 803 (24.1) | 584 (30.6) | 659 (25.6) | 402 (29.0) | 144 (19.0) | 182 (34.7) |
| Rice cereal | 445 (13.3) | 534 (28) | 306 (11.9) | 339 (24.5) | 139 (18.4) | 195 (37.2) |
| Breast milk | 11 (0.3) | 1 (0.1) | 9 (0.4) | 1 (0.1) | 2 (0.3) | 0 |
| Special dietc | 77 (2.3) | 53 (2.8) | 38 (1.5) | 19 (1.4) | 39 (5.2) | 34 (6.5) |
| Feeding difficulty, n (%) | ||||||
| Feeding issue present | 378 (11.3) | 243 (12.7) | 153 (5.9) | 83 (6.0) | 225 (29.7) | 160 (30.5) |
| Aspiration | 14 (0.4) | 11 (0.6) | 0 | 2 (0.1) | 14 (1.9) | 9 (1.7) |
| Difficulty sucking | 27 (0.8) | 16 (0.8) | 4 (0.2) | 0 | 23 (3.0) | 16 (3.1) |
| Cough/chokes during feeding | 57 (1.7) | 25 (1.3) | 17 (0.7) | 0 | 40 (5.3) | 25 (4.8) |
| Difficulty feeding self (>1 year) | 119 (3.6) | 103 (5.4) | 8 (0.3) | 18 (1.3) | 111 (14.7) | 85 (16.2) |
| Reflux/heartburn | 6 (0.2) | 5 (0.3) | 2 (0.1) | 0 | 4 (0.5) | 5 (1.0) |
| Poor appetite | 111 (3.3) | 82 (4.3) | 72 (2.8) | 47 (3.4) | 39 (5.2) | 35 (6.7) |
| Frequent vomiting/spitting up | 19 (0.6) | 8 (0.4) | 7 (0.3) | 1 (0.1) | 12 (1.6) | 7 (1.3) |
| Difficulty drinking from a cup (> 1 year) | 53 (1.6) | 43 (2.3) | 2 (0.1) | 3 (0.2) | 51 (6.7) | 40 (7.6) |
| Difficulty swallowing | 63 (1.9) | 50 (2.6) | 3 (0.1) | 0 | 60 (7.9) | 50 (9.5) |
| Difficulty chewing | 91 (2.7) | 82 (4.3) | 8 (0.3) | 1 (0.1) | 83 (11.0) | 81 (15.5) |
| Picky eater | 69 (2.1) | 44 (2.3) | 35 (1.4) | 19 (1.4) | 34 (4.5) | 25 (4.8) |
| Food allergy/intolerance | 14 (0.4) | 8 (0.4) | 10 (0.4) | 5 (0.4) | 4 (0.5) | 3 (0.6) |
| Bad teeth (> 1 year) | 22 (0.7) | 24 (1.3) | 9 (0.4) | 4 (0.3) | 13 (1.7) | 20 (3.8) |
| Other | 5 (0.2) | 1 (0.1) | 2 (0.1) | 0 | 3 (0.4) | 1 (0.2) |
| Supplements, n (%)a | ||||||
| Currently taking food supplements | 225 (6.8) | 42 (2.2) | 157 (6.1) | 15 (1.1) | 68 (9.0) | 27 (5.2) |
| Currently taking mineral/vitamin supplements | 1626 (48.8) | 847 (44.4) | 1176 (45.6) | 572 (41.3) | 450 (59.5) | 275 (52.5) |
| Illnesses/symptoms, n (%)a | ||||||
| Fever | 438 (13.1) | 193 (10.1) | 295 (11.4) | 121 (8.7) | 143 (18.9) | 72 (13.7) |
| Constipation | 40 (1.2) | 13 (0.7) | 22 (0.9) | 0 | 18 (2.4) | 13(2.5) |
| Diarrhoea | 172 (5.2) | 40 (2.1) | 116 (4.5) | 23 (1.7) | 56 (7.4) | 17 (3.2) |
| Nausea/vomiting | 163 (4.9) | 32 (1.7) | 111 (4.3) | 20 (1.5) | 52 (6.9) | 12 (2.3) |
| Cough/cold | 722 (21.6) | 395 (20.7) | 489 (19.0) | 222 (16.2) | 233 (30.8) | 173 (33.0) |
| Hospitalisation | 135 (4.0) | 45 (2.4) | 64 (2.5) | 26 (1.9) | 71 (9.4) | 19 (3.6) |
| Anaemia status, n (%) | N = 2828 | N = 1511 | N = 2167 | N = 1101 | N = 661 | N = 410 |
| None | 2065 (73.0) | 1314 (87.0) | 1604 (74.0) | 969 (88.0) | 461 (69.7) | 345 (84.2) |
| Mild | 438 (15.5) | 136 (9.0) | 346 (16.0) | 102 (9.3) | 92 (13.9) | 34 (8.3) |
| Moderate | 307 (10.9) | 59 (3.9) | 212 (9.8) | 30 (2.7) | 95 (14.4) | 29 (7.1) |
| Severe | 18 (0.6) | 2 (0.1) | 5 (0.2) | 0 | 13 (2.0) | 2 (0.5) |
| Body mass index for age z‐score n (%) | N = 3113 | N = 1790 | N = 2408 | N = 1312 | N = 705 | N = 478 |
| Overweight (>+1 SD) | 361 (11.6) | 226 (12.6) | 286 (11.9) | 172 (13.1) | 75 (10.6) | 54 (11.3) |
| Normal weight (−2 to +1 SD) | 2305 (74.0) | 1404 (78.4) | 1882 (78.2) | 1051 (80.1) | 423 (60.0) | 353 (73.9) |
| Underweight (<−2 to −3 SD) | 291 (9.4) | 119 (6.7) | 175 (7.3) | 73 (5.6) | 116 (16.5) | 46 (9.6) |
| Severely underweight (<−3 to ≥−5 SD) | 156 (5.0) | 41 (2.3) | 65 (2.7) | 16 (1.2) | 91 (12.9) | 25 (5.2) |
Not mutually exclusive variables.
Self‐fed/self‐feeding is defined as when children feed themselves using their own fingers, utensils and cups. It is the process of setting up, arranging and bringing food and liquid from a plate, bowl or cup to their mouth. Self‐feeding using the fingers typically begins around 6–7 months old when children start eating solid foods. Typically by 12–14 months old, children take on more of an active role using spoons and cups on their own to feed themselves. Age‐appropriate self‐feeding is considered an important developmental skill (Holt International; Kaplan, 2019).
Special diets include diets for certain food allergies/intolerances or chronic conditions, such as diabetes, epilepsy or kidney disease. They also include therapeutic diets, such as modified texture diets like pureed, soft or liquid diets.