TABLE 3.

Studies investigating the effect on habitual consumption of rye products on glycemic control.

	Design*	Subjects‡	Intervention products*	Study procedure/clinical examinations*	Outcomes (data analysis)*	Results Mean ± SEM, unless otherwise stated
Eriksen et al. (27)	Cross-over, randomized, two intervention period (8 + 8 weeks, separated by 8-week wash-out).	49 men, age 49–74, BMI 26–41 kg/m2, signs of metabolic syndrome.	Rye period: breakfast cereals, crisp bread and pasta based on whole grain rye. Wheat period: breakfast cereals, crisp bread and pasta based on whole grain wheat with added wheat bran to match the fiber content of rye products. Products were aimed to constitute 30% of daily energy intake.	OGTT (75 g) in the beginning, middle and end of each intervention period (week 0, 4, and 8). Intravenous blood was drawn at 0, 30, 60, and 120 min.	Glucose, insulin. AUC0–120 glucose and insulin.	No effect.
Lappi et al. (52)	Cross-over, randomized, 4 weeks run-in period and two intervention periods (4 + 4 weeks). No wash out period.	21 males and females, age 38–65 year, BMI 19–30 kg/m2, fasting glucose 4.9–6.3 mmol/l.	Refined wheat bread (WW; run-in period): two commercial breads with 100% white wheat flour, 20–35 g/slice. Whole grain rye (WGR; intervention period): sourdough fermented whole grain rye bread, 25–30 g/slice. Wheat bread with bioprocessed rye bran (WWBRB; intervention period): white wheat bread with 35% (dry matter) bioprocessed rye bran, 25–30 g/slice. Subjects were instructed to consume 6–10 slices bread/day. Reported intake per day of WW/WWBRB/WGR: 169/195/205 g bread, 5/20/21 g DF from bread.	3-h meal test at the end of run-in period and end of each intervention period. Meal (80 g WW bread, 20 g cheese, 40 g cucumber, 3 dl juice. 550 kcal, 3.7 g DF) was consumed after an overnight fast. Venous blood samples were collected at 0, 30, 60, 120, and 180 min.	Glucose, insulin Fasting values, iAUC0–120, first-phase insulin secretion (0–30 min), insulin disposition index.	Glucose: No difference Insulin: WGR lower at 120 min, compared to WW (p = 0.023). Disposition index higher after WGR, compared to WW (3,614 ± 2,883 vs. 2,500 ± 1,336, p = 0.033).
Laaksonen et al. (55)	Parallel, 4-week run-in (habitual diet), hereafter randomized to one of two 12-week intervention arms.	72 (36 m/36 f), metabolic syndrome, age 40–70 year, BMI 26–40 kg/m2. 65% had impaired fasting glucose, 42% had impaired glucose tolerance.	Oat-wheat-potato (OWP) group: wheat bran bread, graham crisp, graham toast and oat bread (60% whole meal oat). Rye-pasta (RP) group: two whole meal rye breads, whole meal rye crisp bread, endosperm rye bread. Subjects were instructed to replace habitual bread with test breads. Furthermore, subjects in RP was instructed to consume ≥3 portions (min 210 g/week) dark pasta per week. Subjects in OWP were instructed to eat similar amount of potatoes. Reported intake OWP/RP: 247/244 g bread/day, potato products 4.4/2.9 times/week, pasta 0.7/2.9 times/week, energy 7.9/8.3 MJ/day, DF 21/26 g/day.	OGTT at baseline and after 12 weeks. Glucose solution (75 g glucose) consumed after an overnight fast. Blood drawn at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, and 120 min.	Glucose, insulin Fasting values, QUICKI, insulinogenic index (IGI), insulin disposition index (DI), AUC	IGI and DI increased more in the RP group, than in the OWP group (approx. 30% vs. 5%, p = 0.026–0.030)
McIntosh et al. (53)	Cross-over, randomized, three intervention periods (4 + 4 + 4 weeks).	28 males, age 40–65 year, no gastrointestinal disorders, BMI 30 ± 0.9 kg/m2.	Intervention product per day (for 4 weeks): Low fiber diet: 140 g refined wheat bread, 40 g refined wheat crisp bread, 50 g low fiber rice cereal (19 g DF/day). High fiber wheat diet: 140 g whole meal bread, 40 g whole meal wheat crisp bread, 50 g whole wheat breakfast cereal (32 g DF/day). High fiber rye diet: 140 g whole grain rye bread, 40 g rye crisp bread, 50 whole-rye breakfast cereal (32 g DF/day).	1-h meal tolerance test at the end of each 4-week period. Subjects consumed one portion of breakfast cereal according to randomization (50 g available CHO) with 1 dl milk after an overnight fast. Venous blood drawn at 0 and 60 min.	Glucose, insulin. Fasting and postprandial. Fasting values, Δ0–60 min	Glucose: Δ0–60 min lower after high fiber diets, compared to low fiber diet (1.35 ± 0.3, 0.95 ± 0.2, 2.42 ± 0.4, p < 0.0005)*. Insulin: Δ0–60 min lower after high fiber diets, compared to low fiber diet (19.6 ± 2.1, 20.8 ± 2.8, 48.9 ± 6.5, p < 0.0001)*. *high fiber rye, high fiber wheat, low fiber.
Juntunen et al. (54)	Cross-over, randomized, two intervention periods (8 + 8 weeks). Intervention was preceded by 2-3-week run-in period and separated by an 8-week wash-out period (both habitual diet).	20 postmenopausal women, healthy, age 59 ± 6.0 year, BMI 27.5 ± 2.9 kg/m2.	Subjects were instructed to replace habitual bread with intervention breads during the 8-week intervention periods. Subjects were instructed to consume at least 4–5 portions of bread per day (20–28 g/174–249 kcal per portion). Rye period: subjects could choose from four different rye breads with similar nutrient composition (≈19% DF) Wheat period: Subjects could choose from seven different wheat breads produced from refined wheat flour (≈2.8% DF)	Frequently sampled intravenous glucose tolerance test (FSIGTT) was conducted at baseline and after each intervention period. Glucose dose of 330 mg/kg body was infused, and intravenous samples taken at 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 19, 22, 24, 27, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 90, 100, 120, 140, 160, and 180 min.	Glucose, insulin. Fasting values. Repeated measures, glucose effectiveness and insulin sensitivity. Acute insulin response (AIR) calculated as AUC0–10.	The increase in AIR (compared to baseline) was higher in the rye period (9.9 ± 24.2%) than in the wheat period (2.8 ± 36.3%).

^‡Data is mean ± sd or (range). *Only test meals and outcomes of interest for investigating the rye factor (insulin, glucose) is included in the table.