Table 1.
The list of antioxidants with their preventive role in CAVS.
| Antioxidants | Calcification Inhibition Mechanism | Calcification Model | Reference Number |
|---|---|---|---|
| In vitro experiments conducted in valvular interstitial cells | |||
| Curcumin | Inhibition of NF-κB, AKT, ERK | In vitro; hVIC | [63] |
| Nobiletin | Inhibition of AKT, NF-κB, TNF-α | In vitro; hVIC | [64] |
| Caffeic Acid Phenethyl Ester | Inhibition of ERK/AKT/NF-κB/NLRP3 inflammasome pathway | In vitro; hVIC | [65] |
| Celastrol | Inhibition of NADPH Oxidase 2 and GSK3β/β-catenin pathway | In vitro; porcine AVIC In vivo; rabbit CAVD model |
[57] |
| Andrographolide | Inhibition of NF-κB/Akt/ERK pathway | In vitro; hVIC | [66] |
| Fucoxanthin | Inhibition of Akt/ERK-related signaling pathway | In vitro; rat heart VIC In vivo; dog model |
[67] |
| Cardamonin | Inhibition of NF-κB/NLRP3 inflammasome pathway | In vitro; hVIC Ex vivo; Human aortic valve leaflet In vivo; ApoE−/− mice model |
[68] |
| In vitro experiments conducted in other vascular cells | |||
| Apocynin | Suppressing extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 | In vitro; Vascular smooth muscle cells | [69,70,71] |
| Ellagic acid | Improving nitric oxide bioavailability and reducing the formation of ROS | In vivo; Rat model | [72] |
| Gallic acid | Blocking BMP2-SMAD1/5/8 signaling pathway | In vitro; Vascular smooth muscle cell | [73] |
| Puerarin | NLRP3/CASPASE1/IL-1Β AND NF-ΚB signaling pathways and inhibition of reactive oxygen species ER/PI3K-AKT signal pathway |
In vitro; Rat vascular smooth muscle cells, Mice vascular smooth muscle cells In vivo; uremic rats |
[74,75] |
| Silybin | Reducing the formation of ROS | In vitro; Vascular smooth muscle cell | [76] |
| Quercetin | Oxidative stress and INOS/P38mapk pathway | In vivo; Adenine-induced chronic renal failure rats | [77] |
| Diosgenin | Reducing the formation of ROS, inhibition of NF-κB/Akt/ERK, p38 pathway | In vivo; Adenine-induced chronic renal failure rats | [78] |
| Vitamin E | Reducing the formation of ROS | In vivo; Uremic obese rats | [79] |
| 10 dehydrogingerdione (10-DHGD) | HDL-raising effect and attenuation of associated inflammation | In vivo; Rabbit model | [80] |
| Resveratrol | Mitochondrial ROS inhibition and SIRT1 activation | In vivo; ApoE−/− mice model | [81] |