Table 1.

Antimicrobial physical agents.

Method	Characteristics	Mode of Action	Reference
Non-ionizing radiation (UV radiation)	260-nanometer UV range was studied as a prominent zone under 200–280-nanometer UV light	Induces thymine–thymine dimmers that subsequently inhibit the replication of DNA	[17]
Ionizing radiation	Electromagnetic radiation and particulate matter	Electron beams, as these are particulate in origin, generate high energy electrons, whereas gamma rays, which are electromagnetic, are used to sterilize a wide range of objects in seconds, including needles, bandage packs, edibles, and medications	[18]
Heat	Heat leads to oxidative effects and denaturation and coagulation of proteins.	Heat labile microbes are easily killed due to oxidative effects and protein denaturation	[19]
Dry heat	Generally used for sterilization purposes	Higher quantities of electrolytes cause irregular protein structures, radical formations, and lethal effects.	[19]
Humid hotness	More effective than dry heat Autoclaving is used at 121 °C for 15 min	The heat is under pressure, which increases its penetration power and kills the spores	[20]
Filtration	Different range of membrane filters is used, including earthenware filters, membrane filters, ultrafiltration, sintered glass, and nano-ranged filters or air filters	Separates microorganisms instead of killing them	[21]