Table 2.
Red blood cell-derived microvesicles’ source, detection methods, immunophenotypic characteristics, role, and association with diseases progression/initiation/prognosis and potential utility as disease biomarkers.
| Red Blood Cell-Derived MVs | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| MVs Source | Isolation/Characterization Method | MVs Phenotype | Function/Role | Disease | Effects/Relation to Disease | References |
| Blood plasma | Differential centrifugation/Flow Cytometry | CD235+ PS+ MVs accumulation | Thrombin activation, Nitric Oxide bioavailability disruption | Sickle Cell Disease and Thalassaemia Intermedia | Potential pro-thrombotic marker | [22,74] |
| Blood plasma | Differential centrifugation/Flow Cytometry | CD235a+ PS+ MVs accumulation | Myeloproliferative neoplasms | [29] | ||
| Blood plasma | Differential centrifugation/Flow Cytometry | CD235a+ MVs accumulation | Positive correlation with aortic stiffness, pulmonary artery pressure, and tricuspid regurgitant velocity | Sickle Cell Disease | Potential biomarker for vascular dysfunction and disease severity | [30] |
| TSP-1 stimulated RBCs, isolated from blood | Centrifugation/Flow Cytometry | CD235a+ PS+ MVs accumulation | Endothelial cell damage, vascular dysfunction, renal vaso-occlusion | Sickle Cell Disease (mice) | [75] | |
| Blood plasma | Differential centrifugation/Flow Cytometry | CD235a+ PS- and CD235a+ CD59- MVs accumulation | Disturbed contribution to hemostasis and thrombosis |
Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemoglobinuria | [76] | |
| Blood plasma | Differential centrifugation/Flow Cytometry, Atomic Force Microscopy | CD235a+ PS+ MVs accumulation | Positive correlation with G6PD enzyme activity | G6PD deficiency | Potential biomarker of G6PD deficiency severity | [77] |
| Stimulated RBCs, isolated from blood | Ultracentrifugation/NTA, Immunoblotting analysis and TEM | CD235a+ MVs accumulation | Disturbed the homeostasis of vascular tone, hypertension induction | Obstructive Sleep Apnea | Endothelial dysfunction marker, Obstructive Sleep Apnea severity | [78,79] |
| Blood plasma | Differential centrifugation/Flow Cytometry and TEM | CD235a+ PS+ MVs accumulation | correlation with several coronary artery diseases and adverse clinical events | Myocardial Infarction | [80,81] | |
| RBCs infected with P. falciparum (cell cultures) | Differential centrifugation, filtration, 60% sucrose cushion/Flow cytometry, TEM and Immunoblotting analysis | RMVs-derived from Malaria Infected RBCs | Immunomodulatory properties, Transmission stage parasite development stimulation | Malaria Infection | [82] | |
| RBCs infected with P. falciparum (cell cultures) | Differential centrifugation/Flow Cytometry, PCR, Immunoblotting analysis | Enriched in hAgo2-miRNA complexes RMVs | innate resistance of RBCs to malaria infection | Malaria Infection | Therapeutic potential as drug delivery systems | [83,84] |
| Blood plasma | Differential centrifugation/Flow Cytometry, TEM | TER-119+ MVs accumulation | Cardioprotective effects | Ischemic preconditioning | [85] | |
| Blood plasma | Immuno-capture method/NTA, Immunoblotting analysis and TEM | Enriched in a-synuclein CD235a+ MVs | Rapid crossing of the blood-brain barrier | Parkinson Disease | Progression or initiation disease biomarker | [86,87] |
| Blood plasma | Differential centrifugation/Flow Cytometry | PS+ CD235a+ MVs accumulation | Association with hyperlipidemia | Metabolic Syndrome | [88] | |
RBCs, red blood cells; G6PD, Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase; NTA, Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis, PCR, Polymerase Chain Reaction; PS, phosphatidyleserine; TEM, Transmission Electron Microscopy.