Table 1.
Comparison of Necroptosis with Other Forms of Cell Death.
| Cell Death | Morphological Features | Biochemical Features | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Necroptosis | Gradual translucency of cytoplasm and swelling of organelles, rupture of cell membranes | Phosphorylated MLKL translocates to the cell membrane and destroys the integrity of the cell membrane | [2,29] |
| Apoptosis | Plasma-membrane infiltration, mitochondrial-outer-membrane permeabilization, DNA fragmentation, nuclear disintegration | Cells break down into apoptotic bodies | [48] |
| Pyroptosis | Mitochondria remain intact, cells swell, and plasma membrane ruptures | Gasdermin family proteins, which form membrane pore upon proteolytic cleavage by caspases, granzymes, and microorganism-derived enzymes | [50] |
| Ferroptosis | Loss of plasma-membrane integrity, swelling of cytoplasm, organelles, chromatin condensation (mitochondria) | Iron accumulation, lipid peroxidation | [54] |
| Autophagy cell death | Cell contents are transported to lysosomes through double-membrane vesicles (autophagosomes) for degradation | Autophagosome formation, increased lysosomal activity | [55,56] |
| Necrosis | Cell structure disintegrates, mitochondria deform and swell, and plasma membrane ruptures | Activation of RIPK3, the molecular mechanisms of MLKL-dependent and MLKL-independent necrosis | [57,58,59] |
| Parthanatos | DNA fragmentation, chromatin condensation | PARP is overexpressed, and mitochondria-associated AIF is ectopic | [60] |
| Entotic cell death | Intercellular adhesion, lysosomal fusion, internalized cell death, and degradation | E-cadherin expression, RhoA-GTPase, and ROCK activation | [61] |
| NETotic cell death | Release of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA | ROS accumulation | [62] |
| Immunogenic cell death | Changes in cell-surface components and release of soluble medium | TAAs, DAMPs, release of proinflammatory cytokines, antigen-specific immune responses | [63,64] |
| Copper-dependent death | / | Apolipoprotein aggregation, iron–sulfur cluster loss, protein-toxicity stress | [45] |
| Anoikis | / | An inappropriate type of ECM | [46] |
Notes: PARP: poly(ADP-ribose) collectase; AIF: apoptosis-inducing factor; TAAs: tumor-associated antigens.