Table 2.
Overview of CS-based biomaterials in preclinical and clinical trials.
| Animals/Volunteers (Total) | Incisions/Defects/Cells | Chitosan-Based Form | Effects | Ref. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Preclinical trials | Beagles (n/d) | Open skin wounds on the dorsal side | 20 mg/wound (2 × 2 cm) | Activate immunocytes and inflammatory cells | [53] |
| Mail Wistar rats (60) | Bone defects measuring 2 mm in diameter in both tibias | CS/D. ambrosioides spheres | Faster bone regeneration and a controlled release of the extract | [54] | |
| New Zealand white rabbits (20) | Undergoing TKA surgery and implanted with titanium rod prostheses |
CMCS hydrogel | Reduce the inflammatory response around rabbit knee prostheses, affect the OPG/RANKL/RANK signaling pathway, and promote osteogenesis. | [56] | |
| Clinical trials | Patients undergoing abdominal surgery (30) |
Wound incisions | CS membrane | An effective antimicrobial and procoagulant and promote wound repair by providing a suitable environment for beneficial microbiota | [57] |
| Patients aged 50–70 years old undergoing total or elective hip replacement (n/d) | Human bone marrow stromal cells | CS immobilized glasses | Stimulate fast osteoblast response, displaying rapid cell spreading and cytoskeleton reorganization | [58] |
n/d: No data specified.